Classical methods of cadaveric dissection and/or prosection have not changed in over 400 years (Azer and Eizenberg, 2007) and remain the undisputed gold standard for the teaching of anatomy to undergraduate and postgraduate students (Korf et al., 2008; Balta et al., 2017). In recent times, issues have been raised regarding cost and access to bodies (Estai and Bunt, 2016) particularly with the new and added pressure of COVID-19. Recent technological advances have only added to the pressure placed on medical schools to transition away from the use of cadavers (Howe et al., 2004; Ghazanfar et al., 2018). Despite this, it is still widely accepted that cadaveric methods should be maintained and recent advances used as adjuncts rather than replacements to cadaveric learning (Memon, 2018). It is well recognised that students learn best when multiple pedagogical approaches are used to complement one another (Estai and Bunt, 2016). Examples of such adjuncts are numerous and can largely be split into non-digital and digital. Plastinated specimens from Gunther von Hagens (von Hagens, 1979) and plastic models represent the bulk of the former, whilst three-dimensional imaging techniques including virtual (VR) and augmented reality (AR) represent examples

Introduction Macroscopic anatomy has traditionally been taught using cadaveric material, lectures and a variety of additional resources including online modules and anatomical models. Traditional plastic models are effective educational tools yet they have significant drawbacks such as a lack of anatomical detail, a lack of texturisation and cost. Three-dimensional printed models stand to solve these problems and widen access to high-quality anatomical teaching. This paper outlines the use of three-dimensional multiplanar imaging (computed tomography) in the development of an accurate model of the hepatobiliary system. Materials and methods Computed tomography scans were used to construct a virtual three-dimensional model of the hepatobiliary system. This was printed locally as a full-size colour model. We give a complete account of the process and software used. Discussion This study is among the first of a series in which we will document the newly formed Oxford Library of Anatomy. This series will provide the methodology for the production of three-dimensional models from computed tomography and magnetic resonance imaging scans, and the library will provide a complete collection of the most complex anatomical areas. We hope that these models will form an important adjunct in teaching anatomy to medical students and surgical trainees.

To prospectively evaluate the imaging feasibility of Tc-99m sestamibi brain SPECT of cerebellopontine angle (CPA) tumors, seven patients with CPA lesions seen on CT or MRI and five normal control subjects underwent brain SPECT using a triple-headed camera. Five of these patients had acoustic neuromas, one had a meningloma, and the other had a vascular loop. Subsequently, four patients underwent surgery. In normal control subjects and patients with CPA lesions, there was Tc-99m sestamibi activity in the pituitary gland, choroid plexi, and extraocular muscles. The uptake in these structures, especially the choroid plexi could not be blocked by the oral administration of potassium perchlorate in two normal subjects. Four of seven patients with CPA lesions larger than 1.0 cm in diameter showed tumor uptake (3 acoustic schwannomas, 1 meningloma). Two small ( > 1.0 cm in diameter) intracanalicular type acoustic neuromas failed to show uptake, despite additional attenuation correction for the petrous bone. There was no abnormal uptake in the patient with a vascular loop in the CPA. Preliminary data suggest that, with the exception of small intracanalicular neuromas, CPA tumors can be imaged using Tc-99m sestamibi brain SPECT.

Introduction The role of three dimensional (3D) printing in neurosurgical education is becoming increasingly common. Notably, 3D printing can simulate complex anatomical pathways that may be difficult to regularly and accurately reproduce in cadavers. One such example is the course of the facial nerve within the temporal bone and its relation to the labyrinth. This can aid pre-surgical planning and minimise surgical complications. Here we aim to develop a novel anatomically accurate model of the skull base which demonstrates key neuro vascular components and the course of the facial nerve within the temporal bone by developing a 3D printed model of the skull-base that can be used for medical education and pre-surgical planning. Materials and Methods We utilised a combination of Computed Tomography (CT) and angiography scans to reconstruct the skull base and its vascular contents. Neural components were digitally incorporated under the guidance of the Oxford neurosurgical team and the anatomy department. The model was integrated and printed using polymer jetting. Results The model was successfully printed, with all neurovascular components included. Notably we were able to highlight the intra-temporal course of the facial nerve by creating a bony window within the temporal bone. Conclusion Through a collaboration with industry and a multidisciplinary team, we were able to reproduce the base of the skull from patient neuro-imaging. Our model is both cost-effective, reproducible and can aid both medical students and neurosurgical trainees in their training/education.

Rotator cuff tendon tears are common injuries of the musculoskeletal system that often require surgical repair. However, re‐tearing following repair is a significant clinical problem, with a failure rate of up to 40%, notably at the transition from bone to tendon. The development of biphasic materials consisting of soft and hard components, which can mimic this interface, is therefore promising. Here, a simple manufacturing approach is proposed that combines electrospun filaments and 3D printing to achieve scaffolds made of a soft polydioxanone cuff embedded in a porous polycaprolactone block. The insertion area of the cuff is based on the supraspinatus tendon footprint and the size of the cuff is scaled up from 9 to 270 electrospun filaments to reach a clinically relevant strength of 227N on average. The biological evaluation shows that the biphasic scaffold components are noncytotoxic, and that tendon and bone cells can be grown on the cuff and block, respectively. Overall, these results indicate that combining electrospinning and 3D printing is a feasible and promising approach to create soft‐to‐hard biphasic scaffolds that can improve the outcomes of rotator cuff repair.