Purpose -The purpose of this paper is to develop a measurement instrument for individual entrepreneurial orientation to be used to measure the entrepreneurial orientation of students and other individuals. Design/methodology/approach -A measure of Individual Entrepreneurial Orientation (IEO) was generated, validated, and then tested on 1,100 university students. The items for the scale were based on the definitions of the five entrepreneurial orientation dimensions presented by Lumpkin and Dess. Final analysis of the IEO items using exploratory factor analysis resulted in reliable and valid measures for three of the dimensions. Findings -The scale development process for IEO resulted in three distinct factors that demonstrated reliability and validity: innovativeness, risk-taking, and proactiveness, which statistically correlated with measures of entrepreneurial intention.Research limitations/implications -The study comprised students at one university in the central southern USA and should be extended to other regions of the country and world, as well as to non-students, for greater generalisability. Practical implications -An individual-level entrepreneurial orientation measurement instrument can be used to assist in entrepreneurship education and in student team and project assignments. It has value as a factor of influence in determining educational training for various decisions such as career choices and business endeavours. IEO also could be used by venture capitalists who are considering supporting business proposals and by individuals who want to assess the strength of their orientation towards entrepreneurship. Originality/value -The paper contributes to the measurement of entrepreneurial orientation of individuals and can be used to help with student education and business training.

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Purpose New small businesses are the cornerstone of many small rural communities. They provide needed products and services, new opportunities for employment, and general vitality. The economic impact these businesses have on their town and county are important indicators of an area’s success. The purpose of this paper is to examine newly started small businesses that are within three or four years of age or less, and examine factors that may have led to their success or failure. Here, sources of advice, means of financial support, and background experience of the firm’s founder have been found to be correlated with the business success. Design/methodology/approach The analysis using Probit regression yielded four models wherein female owners, family help with a business and Hispanic ownership had significant models predicting performance all of these were negative relationships. The factors correlated with business success as proposed are presented. Of course correlation does not imply causation, which means that the authors cannot be sure that a factor that is associated with business success will lead to business success. But, this is an important first step in determining whether there are significant differences between successful and unsuccessful businesses. Findings The findings showed that experience with previous business ownership had a distinct impact and the marketing efforts were also important for profitability. The other factors were not significant. A second phase to the analysis using Probit regression yielded four models wherein female owners, family help with a business and Hispanic ownership had significant models predicting performance all of these were negative relationships. This represents the difficulties that are encountered with these groups in garnering the support and financial means they need to succeed. It was also interesting that the use of a business plan did not help the businesses succeed. Research limitations/implications Using a Probit Regression and χ2 analysis of the data is the most appropriate and accurate analysis for a date set of this type. There is much more to be accomplished with rural entrepreneurship and the use of these techniques would be appropriate for this type of data. Practical implications Business plans are important for the business founder to predict potential costs and profits. In this study however, the authors did not find that having a business plan differentiated business’s performance. If it can be replicated, it will be important to find out what is unique about rural areas that lead to this finding. If business plans do not help, then what type of preplanning will help? If this finding is correct, business development agencies may wish to cut back resources devoted to writing a business plan, and devote them to other areas. Being a member of business network group also is not associated with business success. Social implications The growth of rural entrepreneurial businesses is well documented. These businesses provide many social impacts to the local community not only by providing products or services need but also by providing employment. This research is imperative to providing the best success plan for these businesses as the proliferate. Originality/value There has been very little research on rural entrepreneurship. This study takes a unique look at a rural community and the success or failure of their businesses over a one-year period when most small businesses succeed or fail. There is much more to be done on examining the tools they need to be successful.

Purpose -To understand the differences in perceived barriers to e-auctions both in US buying organizations that have adopted e-auctions and in both those that have not. Design/methodology/approach -Four propositions were developed based on the literature and case studies in eight companies that used e-auctions for sourcing. Measures were developed for lack of e-auction knowledge, lack of supplier participation, information security concerns and importance of supplier relationships. Survey data were gathered from 163 US National Association of Purchasing Management members. GLM-MANOVA was used to test the propositions.Findings -E-auction adopters perceive information security to be less of a concern than non-adopters. No significant differences were found between adopters and non-adopters on the buyer's e-auction knowledge, lack of supplier participation, and the importance of supplier relationships.Research limitations/implications -The small sample size limits statistical power, so small differences may not have been detected. The results may not generalize beyond the sample. Practical implications -Supply managers should focus on reducing information security concerns within their organizations to facilitate adoption. Originality/value -No published studies have explored the differences between adopters and non-adopters of e-auctions to identify barriers.