No abstract

Mitochondria are involved in a number of cellular processes and are essential for both life and death. As the site of oxidative phosphorylation, these double-membrane organelles provide a highly efficient route for eukaryotic cells to generate ATP from energy-rich molecules. During the mitochondrial energy production process, reactive oxygen species (ROS), such as superoxide (O 2 Ϫ ) and hydrogen peroxide (H 2 O 2 ), are produced as by-products. In fact, mitochondria are the primary source of a majority of cellular ROS (2). Mitochondria also participate in intermediary metabolism. Under normal oxygen tensions, cells catabolize glucose to pyruvate. Pyruvate is then imported into the mitochondria for further catabolism through the Krebs cycle, which transfers electrons to the respiratory chain for ATP synthesis. In low oxygen tension, or hypoxic conditions in which there is a paucity of oxygen as an electron acceptor, cells are surmised to undergo anaerobic glycolysis as a default mode. Pyruvate is then used for low-efficiency energy production in the cytosol by glycolysis. In addition to metabolism and energy production, mitochondria play important roles in the regulation of apoptosis and intracellular Ca 2ϩ homeostasis. Dysfunction in mitochondria results in severe cellular consequences and is linked to a wide range of human diseases (2, 36, 43). The role of mitochondrial activities in early embryonic development and embryonic stem (ES) cell function is not well defined (20,42). The environment of the uterus before placentation is anaerobic (11). To produce ATP in this environment, early embryonic cells, such as ES cells, rely heavily on glycolysis for ATP production (4) and, thus, do not require a large number of mitochondria. ES cells only have a few mitochondria with poorly developed cristae (21). Effective control of mitochondrial mass and function is critical for the prevention of damage by oxidative stress (ROS) in ES cells. However, when these cells are allowed to differentiate, the resulting cells show numerous large mitochondria with distinct cristae. Thus, mitochondria must undergo robust replication/biogenesis during this short period of time. Earlier studies have shown that the mitochondrial genome undergoes significant replication during implantation of blastocysts (41), and once gastrulation occurs, cells replicate their mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) to match the energy demand of differentiating cells (39). It has also been demonstrated that mitochondrial metabolic rates correlate inversely with the differentiation capacity of ES cells (37). However, exactly how mitochondria coordinate stem cell behavior during embryogenesis is still not well understood.Mitochondria are highly dynamic organelles that undergo continuous fusion and fission. These mitochondrial processes play important roles in mitochondrial biogenesis/replication.

Allogeneic islet transplantation into the liver in combination with immune suppressive drug therapy is widely regarded as a potential cure for type 1 diabetes. However, the intrahepatic system is suboptimal as the concentration of drugs and nutrients there is higher compared to pancreas, which negatively affects islet function. Islet encapsulation within semipermeable membranes is a promising strategy that allows for the islet transplantation outside the suboptimal liver portal system and provides environment, where islets can perform their endocrine function. In this study, we develop a macroencapsulation device based on thin microwell membranes. The islets are seeded in separate microwells to avoid aggregation, whereas the membrane porosity is tailored to achieve sufficient transport of nutrients, glucose and insulin. The non-degradable, microwell membranes are composed of poly (ether sulfone)/polyvinylpyrrolidone and manufactured via phase separation micro molding. Our results show that the device prevents aggregation and preserves the islet’s native morphology. Moreover, the encapsulated islets maintain their glucose responsiveness and function after 7 days of culture (stimulation index above 2 for high glucose stimulation), demonstrating the potential of this novel device for islet transplantation.

The development of immune protective islet encapsulation devices could allow for islet transplantation in the absence of immunosuppression. However, the immune protective membrane / barrier introduced there could also impose limitations in transport of oxygen and nutrients to the encapsulated cells resulting to limited islet viability. In the last years, it is well understood that achieving prevascularization of the device in vitro could facilitate its connection to the host vasculature after implantation, and therefore could provide sufficient blood supply and oxygenation to the encapsulated islets. However, the microvascular networks created in vitro need to mimic well the highly organized vasculature of the native tissue. In earlier study, we developed a functional macroencapsulation device consisting of two polyethersulfone/polyvinylpyrrolidone (PES/PVP) membranes, where a bottom microwell membrane provides good separation of encapsulated islets and the top flat membrane acts as a lid. In this work, we investigate the possibility of creating early microvascular networks on the lid of this device by combining novel membrane microfabrication with co-culture of human umbilical vein endothelial cell (HUVEC) and fibroblasts. We create thin porous microstructured PES/PVP membranes with solid and intermittent line-patterns and investigate the effect of cell alignment and cell interconnectivity as a first step towards the development of a stable prevascularized layer in vitro. Our results show that, in contrast to non-patterned membranes where HUVECs form unorganized HUVEC branch-like structures, for the micropatterned membranes, we can achieve cell alignment and the co-culture of HUVECs on a monolayer of fibroblasts attached on the membranes with intermittent line-pattern allows for the creation of HUVEC branch-like structures over the membrane surface. This important step towards creating early microvascular networks was achieved without the addition of hydrogels, often used in angiogenesis assays, as gels could block the pores of the membrane and limit the transport properties of the islet encapsulation device.

Extrahepatic transplantation of islets of Langerhans could aid in better survival of islets after transplantation. When islets are transfused into the liver 60-70% of them are lost immediately after transplantation. An important factor for a successful extrahepatic transplantation is a well-vascularized tissue surrounding the implant. There are many strategies known for enhancing vessel formation such as adding cells with endothelial potential, the combination with angiogenic factors and / or applying surface topography at the exposed surface of the device. Previously we developed porous, micropatterned membranes which can be applied as a lid for an islet encapsulation device and we showed that the surface topography induces human umbilical vein endothelial cell (HUVEC) alignment and interconnection. This was achieved without the addition of hydrogels, often used in angiogenesis assays. In this work, we went one step further towards clinical implementation of the device by combining this micropatterned lid with Mesenchymal Stem Cells (MSCs) to facilitate prevascularization in vivo. As for HUVECs, the micropatterned membranes induced MSC alignment and organization in vitro, an important contributor to vessel formation, whereas in vivo (subcutaneous rat model) they contributed to improved implant prevascularization. In fact, the combination of MSCs seeded on the micropatterned membrane induced the highest vessel formation score in 80% of the sections.