This study investigated contributors of English reading comprehension outcomes among predominantly U.S.-born 1st-and 3rd-grade (N ϭ 73) dual language learners (DLLs) from Spanish-speaking, lowincome homes who attend English-only instructional schools in the Southern region of the United States, which is experiencing historic rates of school-age DLL enrollment. We investigated the utility of various conceptualizations of vocabulary, namely English-only, Spanish-only, and specifically Spanish-English conceptually scored receptive vocabulary, in understanding DLLs' reading comprehension. We first examined whether a gap was evident between the various conceptualizations of vocabulary and English word reading. Then, using structural equation modeling, we investigated the influence of the various conceptualizations of vocabulary on English reading comprehension, accounting for English word reading skills. Finally, we examined the potential contributions of DLLs' home language environments. Results revealed that the gap between English word reading and vocabulary varied as a function of the conceptualization of vocabulary. Further, English word reading emerged as the robust contributor to children's English reading comprehension, with no significant influence of receptive vocabulary, regardless of how it was conceptualized. Finally, and contributing to a nascent area of research, attention to DLLs' home language use practices suggests that the productive language domain (i.e., children's own home language use) may represent an important contributor to English reading comprehension among DLLs from Spanish-speaking homes. We discuss theoretical and practical implications. Educational Impact and Implications StatementGiven the importance of reading comprehension for overall academic success and the demographic shifts across classrooms in the United States more generally and in the Southern region of the United States more specifically, there is an increasing need to understand the factors that contribute to English reading comprehension outcomes among school-aged dual language learners' (DLLs) from Spanish-speaking homes. This study explored how word reading, receptive vocabulary, and home language use patterns contribute to English reading comprehension among DLLs from Spanishspeaking, low-income homes in an urban school district in the Southern United States. Results confirmed the robust role of word reading as a predictor of English reading comprehension, but, unlike previous work, also revealed that DLLs' word reading skills require further support and development. While vocabulary was not a robust predictor, assessments that measured knowledge of concepts as they were distributed across both Spanish and English were found to be more effective at demonstrating the rich linguistic knowledge DLLs possess. In fact, the previously noted gap between generally adequate word reading and low vocabulary among DLLs varied significantly depending on the vocabulary measure used. Finally, findings suggest that the language students...

Vocabulary represents a key barrier to language and literacy development for many English learners. This study examined the relationship between Spanish-speaking English learners’ conceptually scored Spanish–English vocabulary, academic English proficiency, and English reading comprehension. Second- and fourth-grade English learners (N = 62) completed standardized conceptually scored vocabulary measures in the fall and state-administered standardized measures of academic English proficiency and English reading comprehension in the spring. Conceptually scored vocabulary measures are designed to tap knowledge of the number of known concepts, regardless of the specific language (Spanish or English) used to label the concept. Regression analyses revealed that academic English proficiency and English reading comprehension were not predicted by the conceptually scored measure of receptive vocabulary. However, both academic English proficiency and English reading comprehension were predicted by the conceptually scored measure of expressive vocabulary. In addition, the relationship between conceptually scored expressive vocabulary and English reading comprehension remained after controlling for academic English proficiency. Results underscore the utility of measures that incorporate English learners’ first and second language skills in understanding the vocabulary knowledge English learners bring to English language and literacy learning tasks.

Purpose Despite the unprecedented growth of Spanish–English dual language learners (DLLs) in new destination states—where DLLs have not been historically served—empirical understanding of their language and literacy skills is scant. Drawing on scientific understandings of bilingual language acquisition, we compare monolingually scored and bilingually scored vocabulary knowledge of Spanish–English DLLs in a new destination state. Method Participants included second- and fourth-grade Spanish–English DLLs ( N = 60) in a large urban school district in a new destination state. Students were considered DLLs if their parents indicated that Spanish was spoken at home to some extent. We utilized monolingually scored (Spanish-only and English-only) and bilingually scored (conceptual and total) conceptualizations of vocabulary knowledge. Descriptive analysis and Bonferroni-adjusted multiple comparisons were used to compare vocabulary knowledge by assessment approach (i.e., monolingual or bilingual), grade (i.e., second and fourth), and English proficiency status (i.e., limited English proficient and English proficient). Results Findings revealed that (a) DLLs, across grade levels and English proficiency status, demonstrated higher bilingual vocabulary scores compared to monolingual scores and stronger receptive vocabulary performance than expressive vocabulary performance and (b) DLLs' response patterns varied depending on the bilingual assessment approach used, with DLLs in limited English–proficient and English-proficient groups evidencing similar response patterns. Conclusions Bilingual scoring of vocabulary knowledge provides a more holistic understanding of elementary-aged DLLs' language skills. Results represent an important step toward shifting school-based assessment practices to incorporate comprehensive and equitable ways to conceptualize and measure elementary-aged Spanish–English DLLs' vocabulary knowledge.

Using state-level data, we report special education (SPED) trends in Tennessee from 2009 to 2019 for students in Grades 3 to 8 by language groups—native English speaker (NES), English-proficient bilingual (EPB), and current English learner (Current EL)—and income status (eligibility for free or reduced-price lunch). The sample included 812,783 students from 28 districts that met the risk ratio threshold set by the state. Results revealed that none of the language groups were disproportionally (i.e., over) represented in SPED based on Tennessee’s threshold. However, trends varied by income status, suggesting that exclusionary factors are potentially associated with rates of identification.

Purpose Elementary-age dual language learners (DLLs) from Spanish-speaking homes in the United States are often characterized as at risk for low vocabulary in both Spanish and English. This longitudinal study examined conceptually scored receptive and expressive vocabulary development among DLLs from Spanish-speaking, low-income homes and investigated patterns of language responses on the conceptually scored measures. Method DLLs in kindergarten and second grade ( N = 118) attending school in the Southeast region of the United States were followed for three consecutive academic years and assessed on measures of receptive and expressive conceptually scored vocabulary. Results Individual growth modeling, using raw scores, revealed positive vocabulary growth over time, with above average performance relative to national norms. However, initial conceptually scored receptive vocabulary scores were higher than conceptually scored expressive vocabulary scores. Furthermore, DLLs' conceptually scored receptive—but not expressive—vocabulary rate of growth was more rapid compared to national norms. Finally, DLLs' patterns of language responses revealed a shift toward more English over time, but Spanish continued to be used through fourth grade. Conclusion Results contradict deficit-driven views about DLLs' vocabulary skills and underscore the utility of conceptually scored vocabulary measures to assess vocabulary development among elementary-age DLLs to more comprehensively account for the linguistic assets they bring to learning.