It is a commonly held belief that infiltration of immune cells into tumor tissues and direct physical contact between tumor cells and infiltrated immune cells is associated with physical destructions of the tumor cells, reduction of the tumor burden, and improved clinical prognosis. An increasing number of studies, however, have suggested that aberrant infiltration of immune cells into tumor or normal tissues may promote tumor progression, invasion, and metastasis. Neither the primary reason for these contradictory observations, nor the mechanism for the reported diverse impact of tumor-infiltrating immune cells has been elucidated, making it difficult to judge the clinical implications of infiltration of immune cells within tumor tissues. This mini-review presents several existing hypotheses and models that favor the promoting impact of tumor-infiltrating immune cells on tumor invasion and metastasis, and also analyzes their strength and weakness.

BackgroundThe transition from normal epithelium to adenoma and, to invasive carcinoma in the human colon is associated with acquired molecular events taking 5-10 years for malignant transformation. We discovered CCAT1, a non-coding RNA over-expressed in colon cancer (CC), but not in normal tissues, thereby making it a potential disease-specific biomarker. We aimed to define and validate CCAT1 as a CC-specific biomarker, and to study CCAT1 expression across the adenoma-carcinoma sequence of CC tumorigenesis.MethodsTissue samples were obtained from patients undergoing resection for colonic adenoma(s) or carcinoma. Normal colonic tissue (n = 10), adenomatous polyps (n = 18), primary tumor tissue (n = 22), normal mucosa adjacent to primary tumor (n = 16), and lymph node(s) (n = 20), liver (n = 8), and peritoneal metastases (n = 19) were studied. RNA was extracted from all tissue samples, and CCAT1 expression was analyzed using quantitative real time-PCR (qRT-PCR) with confirmatory in-situ hybridization (ISH).ResultsBorderline expression of CCAT1 was identified in normal tissue obtained from patients with benign conditions [mean Relative Quantity (RQ) = 5.9]. Significant relative CCAT1 up-regulation was observed in adenomatous polyps (RQ = 178.6 ± 157.0; p = 0.0012); primary tumor tissue (RQ = 64.9 ± 56.9; p = 0.0048); normal mucosa adjacent to primary tumor (RQ = 17.7 ± 21.5; p = 0.09); lymph node, liver and peritoneal metastases (RQ = 11,414.5 ± 12,672.9; 119.2 ± 138.9; 816.3 ± 2,736.1; p = 0.0001, respectively). qRT-PCR results were confirmed by ISH, demonstrating significant correlation between CCAT1 up-regulation measured using these two methods.ConclusionCCAT1 is up-regulated across the colon adenoma-carcinoma sequence. This up-regulation is evident in pre-malignant conditions and through all disease stages, including advanced metastatic disease suggesting a role in both tumorigenesis and the metastatic process.

Colorectal cancer (CRC) is a major burden to healthcare systems worldwide accounting for approximately one million of new cancer cases worldwide. Even though, CRC mortality has decreased over the last 20 years, it remains the third most common cause of cancer-related mortality, accounting for approximately 600,000 deaths in 2008 worldwide. A multitude of risk factors have been linked to CRC, including hereditary factors, environmental factors and inflammatory syndromes affecting the gastrointestinal tract. Recently, various pathogens were added to the growing list of risk factors for a number of common epithelial cancers, but despite the multitude of correlative studies, only suggestions remain about the possible relationship between selected viruses and bacteria of interest and the CRC risk. United States military service members are exposed to various risk factors impacting the incidence of cancer development. These exposures are often different from that of many sectors of the civilian population. Thereby, cancer risk identification, screening and early detection are imperative for both the military health care beneficiaries and the population as a whole. In this review, we will focus on several pathogens and their potential roles in development of CRC, highlighting the clinical trials evaluating this correlation and provide our personal opinion about the importance of risk reduction, health promotion and disease prevention for military health care beneficiaries.

The expression of gene products in bacteria can be inhibited by the use of RNA external guide sequences (EGSs) that hybridize to a target mRNA. Endogenous RNase P cleaves the mRNA in the complex, making it inactive. EGSs participate in this biochemical reaction as the data presented here show. They promote mRNA cleavage at the expected site and sometimes at other secondary sites. Higher-order structure must affect these reactions if the cleavage does not occur at the defined site, which has been determined by techniques based on their ability to find sites that are accessible to the EGS oligonucleotides. Sites defined by a random EGS technique occur as expected. Oligonucleotides made up primarily of defined or random nucleotides are extremely useful in inhibiting expression of the gyrA and rnpA genes from several different bacteria or the cat gene that determines resistance to chloramphenicol in Escherichia coli. An EGS made up of a peptidephosphorodiamidate morpholino oligonucleotide (PPMO) does not cleave at the same site as an unmodified RNA EGS for reasons that are only partly understood. However, PPMO-EGSs are useful in inhibiting the expression of targeted genes from Gram-negative and Gram-positive organisms during ordinary growth in broth and may provide a basis for broad-spectrum antibiotics.drug resistance ͉ Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria ͉ peptide-phosphorodiamidate morpholino oligonucleotide ͉ RNase P T he utility of bacterial transformation for therapeutic purposes has been limited by the number of species that will undergo transformation and the frequency with which that event happens. To accommodate new therapies that involve small nucleic acids, a means has to be developed to enable bacterial species to take up these nucleic acids with relative ease. The covalent linkage of arginine-rich peptides to the ends of chemically-modified RNAs facilitates the uptake of the RNA analog (1, 2) and other similar molecules (4,5). This methodology in combination with an effective means of inactivating gene expression has to be developed to make it useful for therapeutic agents. There are other processes that function in bacteria to inhibit gene expression (3, 6), but the external guide sequence (EGS) technology (7,8) that is mediated by RNase P cleavage of the target RNA seems optimal in this regard.RNAi and siRNA (ref. 9 and references therein) are not useful tools for the transformation of bacterial species because these RNAs rely on an intracellular complex, the Dicer complex (9) in particular, to release ssRNA that will base-pair with the target mRNA. EGS technology, which is just as effective as siRNA in mammalian cells in tissue culture (10), is very effective in Escherichia coli (11,12) and Salmonella typhimurium (13). Bacterial cells can be altered from drug resistance to drug sensitivity with the methods generally described here (11), and a similar method has also been reported (14). Essential genes can also be inactivated in terms of their expression. The EGS method will allow 3-bp mismatche...

Human brucellosis can be acquired from infected animal tissues by ingestion, inhalation, or contamination of conjunctiva or traumatized skin by infected animal products. In addition, Brucella is recognized as a biowarfare threat agent. Although a vaccine to protect humans from natural or deliberate infection could be useful, vaccines presently used in animals are unsuitable for human use. We tested orally administered live, attenuated, purine auxotrophic B. melitensis WR201 bacteria for their ability to elicit cellular and humoral immune responses and to protect mice against intranasal challenge with B. melitensis 16M bacteria. Immunized mice made serum antibody to lipopolysaccharide and non-O-polysaccharide antigens. Splenocytes from immunized animals released interleukin-2 and gamma interferon when grown in cultures with Brucella antigens. Immunization led to protection from disseminated infection and enhanced clearance of the challenge inoculum from the lungs. Optimal protection required administration of live bacteria, was related to immunizing dose, and was enhanced by booster immunization. These results establish the usefulness of oral vaccination against respiratory challenge with virulent Brucella and suggest that WR201 should be further investigated as a vaccine to prevent human brucellosis.Human brucellosis, caused mostly by Brucella abortus, B. melitensis, and B. suis, can be acquired by ingestion, inhalation, or contamination of conjunctiva or traumatized skin by infected animal products (3). Bacteria spread, presumably via lymphatics and blood (8), from the site of entry to the mononuclear phagocyte system. Although generalized symptoms of fever, sweating, and fatigue are nearly universal for patients with acute brucellosis, onset can be insidious and many patients present with or develop localized foci of infection, especially in the bones and joints (24). Control of brucellosis in domestic food animals has markedly reduced the incidence of human brucellosis in the United States, but the disease represents an important cause of morbidity worldwide. A human vaccine would be valuable for individuals who may be occupationally exposed to brucellae and for persons who consume unpasteurized dairy products from areas in which brucellae are endemic. In addition, Brucella species are recognized as biowarfare or bioterror threat agents by the Center for Disease Control, further supporting the need to develop effective medical protective measures against them.We have previously reported that levels of B. melitensis WR201, a purEK deletion mutant of B. melitensis 16M, are attenuated for growth in mononuclear phagocytes (5) and in mice (4) after intraperitoneal (i.p.) inoculation relative to parent strain results. Mice inoculated i.p. with strain WR201 make antibody directed against lipopolysaccharide (LPS) and Brucella protein, and their splenocytes produce gamma interferon (IFN-␥) and interleukin-2 (IL-2) when grown in cultures with Brucella antigens (11). In addition, immunization of mice by i.p. inoculation...