having a demand for contraception; those who want to wait at least two years before having a child or do not want any more children but are not using a contraceptive method are considered to have an unmet need for contraception. 2 ) For example, in Bihar, where the mean age at cohabitation after marriage is just 17, more than a third of married women aged 15-19 (34%) and 20-24 (40%) have a demand for contraception, and similar proportions (31% and 33%, respectively) have an unmeet need for contraception (primarily for spacing). 4,5 The benefits of contraceptive use by young couples in India are many, especially in states where the age at marriage is very low, and levels of fertility, population growth, infant and child mortality, and abortion are high. 6 Delaying first births until age 21 and increasing the interval between the first and second births would help lower infant and child mortality, 2,7 increase the mean age of childbearing and reduce India's high momentum effect* on population growth. 8 Cultural barriers impede young women in rural India, especially northern India (including Bihar), from postponing childbearing. Parents and relatives are eager to see newly married women become pregnant and give birth soon after marriage and cohabitation. Many fear that the capacity for childbearing may decline with age, and there- times those in comparison areas.Women in intervention areas had elevated odds of knowing that fertility varies during the menstrual cycle,and of agreeing that early childbirth can be harmful and that contraceptive use is necessary and safe for delaying first births (odds ratios,1.6-3.0). CONCLUSION: Culturally appropriate,community-based communication programs that target youth and those who influence their decisions can create demand for contraception among young couples and lead to increased contraceptive use.International Family Planning Perspectives,2008,34(4):189-197 By India is home to one-sixth of the world's population, and to 30% of youth aged 10-24. 1 There are more than 211 million 15-24-year-olds in India, 2 and they account for 48% of the country's fertility. The total fertility rate in 2005-2006 was 2.7 children per woman, but there was much variation among states, from 2.0 (below replacement level) in Kerala to 4.0 in Bihar and 4.6 in Meghalaya. 3 Early marriage and childbearing are common in India: The median age at marriage for females is 16.7, well below the legal age of 18, and 28% of women aged 20-49 gave birth before age 18. 1 Contraceptive use by mothers younger than 25 is negligible, resulting in short interpregnancy intervals. Women usually achieve their desired fertility of 2-3 children by age 25 and then adopt a permanent method.Although contraceptive use among women younger than 25 is low, the demand for contraception in this population is high. (The National Family Health Survey classifies married women who want to wait at least two years before having a child or do not want any more children as *The momentum effect in India can be explained as follows: Bec...

Green synthesis of silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) using biological resources is the most facile, economical, rapid, and environmentally friendly method that mitigates the drawbacks of chemical and physical methods. Various biological resources such as plants and their different parts, bacteria, fungi, algae, etc. could be utilized for the green synthesis of bioactive AgNPs. In recent years, several green approaches for non-toxic, rapid, and facile synthesis of AgNPs using biological resources have been reported. Plant extract contains various biomolecules, including flavonoids, terpenoids, alkaloids, phenolic compounds, and vitamins that act as reducing and capping agents during the biosynthesis process. Similarly, microorganisms produce different primary and secondary metabolites that play a crucial role as reducing and capping agents during synthesis. Biosynthesized AgNPs have gained significant attention from the researchers because of their potential applications in different fields of biomedical science. The widest application of AgNPs is their bactericidal activity. Due to the emergence of multidrug-resistant microorganisms, researchers are exploring the therapeutic abilities of AgNPs as potential antibacterial agents. Already, various reports have suggested that biosynthesized AgNPs have exhibited significant antibacterial action against numerous human pathogens. Because of their small size and large surface area, AgNPs have the ability to easily penetrate bacterial cell walls, damage cell membranes, produce reactive oxygen species, and interfere with DNA replication as well as protein synthesis, and result in cell death. This paper provides an overview of the green, facile, and rapid synthesis of AgNPs using biological resources and antibacterial use of biosynthesized AgNPs, highlighting their antibacterial mechanisms.

A study was carried out with a newly isolated bacterial strain yielding extracellular amylase. The phylogenetic tree constructed on the basis of 16S rDNA gene sequences revealed this strain as clustered with the closest members of Bacillus sp. and identified as Bacillus subtilis BI19. The effect of various fermentation conditions on amylase production through shake-flask culture was investigated. Rice flour (1.25%) as a cheap natural carbon source was found to induce amylase production mostly. A combination of peptone and tryptone as organic and ammonium sulfate as inorganic nitrogen sources gave highest yield. Maximum production was obtained after 24 h of incubation at 37°C with an initial medium pH 8.0. Addition of surfactants like Tween 80 (0.25 g/L) and sodium lauryl sulfate (0.2 g/L) resulted in 28% and 15% increase in enzyme production, respectively. Amylase production was 3.06 times higher when optimized production conditions were used. Optimum reaction temperature and pH for crude amylase activity were 50°C and 6.0, respectively. The crude enzyme showed activity and stability over a fair range of temperature and pH. These results suggest that B. subtilis BI19 could be exploited for production of amylase at relatively low cost and time.

Waterlogging stress (WS) induces ethylene (ET) and polyamine (spermine, putrescine, and spermidine) production in plants, but their reprogramming is a decisive element for determining the fate of the plant upon waterlogging-induced stress. WS can be challenged by exploring symbiotic microbes that improve the plant’s ability to grow better and resist WS. The present study deals with identification and application of 1-aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylic acid (ACC) deaminase-producing fungal endophyte Trichoderma asperellum (strain MAP1), isolated from the roots of Canna indica L., on wheat growth under WS. MAP1 positively affected wheat growth by secreting phytohormones/secondary metabolites, strengthening the plant’s antioxidant system and influencing the physiology through polyamine production and modulating gene expression. MAP1 inoculation promoted yield in comparison to non-endophyte inoculated waterlogged seedlings. Exogenously applied ethephon (ET synthesis inducer) and 1-aminocyclopropane carboxylic acid (ACC; ET precursor) showed a reduction in growth, compared to MAP1-inoculated waterlogged seedlings, while amino-oxyacetic acid (AOA; ET inhibitor) application reversed the negative effect imposed by ET and ACC, upon waterlogging treatment. A significant reduction in plant growth rate, chlorophyll content, and stomatal conductance was noticed, while H2O2, MDA production, and electrolyte leakage were increased in non-inoculated waterlogged seedlings. Moreover, in comparison to non-inoculated waterlogged wheat seedlings, MAP1-inoculated waterlogged wheat exhibited antioxidant–enzyme activities. In agreement with the physiological results, genes associated with the free polyamine (PA) biosynthesis were highly induced and PA content was abundant in MAP1-inoculated seedlings. Furthermore, ET biosynthesis/signaling gene expression was reduced upon MAP1 inoculation under WS. Briefly, MAP1 mitigated the adverse effect of WS in wheat, by reprogramming the PAs and ET biosynthesis, which leads to optimal stomatal conductance, increased photosynthesis, and membrane stability as well as reduced ET-induced leaf senescence.

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