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What capacity do smallholders have to influence key decisions in large-scale land deals to their own advantage, in particular in their own localities? Though the cards are stacked against them, micro processes on the ground show great variations. We put the magnifying glass on local power dynamics to explore both opportunities and constraints to the bargaining power of smallholders as they resist land deals or struggle for (better terms of) inclusion. We propose a relational perspective, in the sense that we focus on the social relations through which smallholders may 'produce' power, access power resources and profit from leverage vis-à-vis investorsconstrained by wider power configurations. Drawing on our research in Indonesia and the Philippines augmented with other case studies on Southeast Asia, we highlight (1) relations of interdependency with investors; (2) 'horizontal' relations of shared interests and identity; (3) tactical relations with state officials; (4) relations with specialists in violence; and (5) relations with supra-local civil society groups. Explorative in nature, this contribution suggests an analytical lens to study sources of smallholder bargaining power and vulnerability in large-scale land deals.

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This article offers two contribution to literature on agrarian inequality in Indonesia, namely a conceptual approach for understanding this phenomenon and its implication on policy formulation. The first contribution includes a synthesis of some literature on various aspects of agrarian inequality. In addition, two types of agrarian inequality are distinguished according to its locus of existence, i.e. inequality of distribution which refers to unequal land tenure among different classes within smallholding agricultural sector, and inequality of allocation which refers to unequal allocation of land and other natural resources between small (family) farms and large (corporate) enterprises. The second contribution is formulation of a policy framework to resolve these two types of agrarian inequality. First of all, the politics of agrarian resources allocation should be based on the principle of positive discrimination which favors smallholders’ interests. Furthermore, to ensure this principle comes into reality, five schemes of tenure reform have to be fully integrated, namely: (re)distribution, registration, recognition, devolution and restitution. This article divided into two parts. Part 1 will focus on the first contribution (conceptual approach); meanwhile, the second contribution (policy formulation) will be further elaborated in Part 2.Keywords: agrarian inequality, land reform, politics of agrarian resources allocation, Indonesia.Intisari: Dua kontribusi diajukan artikel ini pada kepustakaan mengenai ketimpangan agraria di Indonesia, yaitu pendekatan konseptual untuk memahami gejala ketimpangan agraria ini dan implikasinya pada penyusunan kebijakan. Kontribusi pertama mencakup sintesis atas sejumlah literatur mengenai berbagai aspek ketimpangan agraria. Selain itu, dua jenis ketimpangan agraria juga dibedakan berdasarkan locus keberadaanya, yaitu ketimpangan distribusi yang berarti kesenjangan penguasaan tanah di antara berbagai kelas dalam sektor pertanian rakyat, dan ketimpangan alokasi yang berarti kesenjangan peruntukan tanah dan sumber daya alam lain antara usaha tani skala kecil (keluarga) dengan usaha skala besar (korporasi). Kontribusi yang kedua adalah formulasi suatu kerangka kebijakan untuk menanggulangi dua jenis ketimpangan agraria di atas. Pertama-tama, politik alokasi sumber-sumber agraria harus didasarkan pada prinsip diskriminasi positif yang memihak kepentingan produsen kecil. Lalu, agar prinsip ini bisa terwujud di dunia nyata, lima skema pembaruan tenurial berikut ini mesti diintegrasikan secara menyeluruh, yaitu: (re)distribusi, registrasi, rekognisi, devolusi dan restitusi. Artikel ini terbagi menjadi dua bagian. Bagian 1 akan membahas kontribusi yang pertama (pendekatan konseptual), sementara kontribusi yang kedua (formulasi kebijakan) akan dielaborasi lebih lanjut pada Bagian 2.Kata Kunci: ketimpangan agraria, land reform, politik alokasi sumber-sumber agraria, Indonesia.

This article, which consisted of two parts, offers two contribution to the literature on agrarian inequality in Indonesia, i.e. a conceptual approach for understanding this phenomenon and what it implies on policy formulation. The first contribution has been elaborated in Part 1 which includes a synthesis of various aspects of agrarian inequality and a distinction between two types of agrarian inequality, namely: inequality of distribution and of allocation. In Part 2, the second contribution of this article will be elaborated. Firstly, the current situation of agrarian inequality in Indonesia, which covers those two types of inequality, will be presented. Secondly, a comprehensive policy framework to resolve this problem will be promoted, based on the principle of positive discrimination towards smallholders’ interests. For this purpose, five schemes of tenure reform need to be fully integrated, namely: (re)distribution, registration, recognition, devolution and restitution.  Intisari: Artikel ini, yang terdiri atas dua bagian, menawarkan dua kontribusi pada literatur mengenai ketimpangan agraria di Indonesia, yaitu pendekatan konseptual untuk bisa memahami gejala ini dan apa implikasinya terhadap penyusunan kebijakan. Kontribusi pertama telah dibahas pada Bagian 1 yang mencakup sintesis atas ragam aspek ketimpangan agraria dan pembedaan antara dua jenis ketimpangan agraria, yakni ketimpangan distribusi dan ketimpangan alokasi. Pada Bagian 2, kontribusi kedua dari artikel ini akan diulas secara mendalam. Pertama-tama, situasi ketimpangan agraria terkini di Indonesia, yang mencakup dua jenis ketimpangan di atas, akan dipaparkan. Selanjutnya, sebuah kerangka kebijakan yang komprehensif untuk memecahkan masalah ini akan dipromosikan dengan berdasarkan pada prinsip diskriminasi positif bagi kepentingan para produsen skala kecil. Dalam rangka ini, lima skema pembaruan tenurial berikut penting untuk diintegrasikan secara menyeluruh, yaitu: (re)distribusi, registrasi, rekognisi, devolusi, dan restitusi.