SUMMARYIn this paper, an enriched finite element technique is presented to simulate the mechanism of interaction between the hydraulic fracturing and frictional natural fault in impermeable media. The technique allows modeling the discontinuities independent of the finite element mesh by introducing additional DOFs. The coupled equilibrium and flow continuity equations are solved using a staggered Newton solution strategy, and an algorithm is proposed on the basis of fixed-point iteration concept to impose the flow condition at the hydro-fracture mouth. The cohesive crack model is employed to introduce the nonlinear fracturing process occurring ahead of the hydro-fracture tip. Frictional contact is modeled along the natural fault using the penalty method within the framework of plasticity theory of friction. Moreover, an experimental investigation is carried out to perform the hydraulic fracturing experimental test in fractured media under plane strain condition. The results of several numerical and experimental simulations are presented to verify the accuracy and robustness of the proposed computational algorithm as well as to investigate the mechanisms of interaction between the hydraulically driven fracture and frictional natural fault. Copyright

Few places on Earth are as tectonically active as the Karlıova region of eastern Turkey. In this region, complex interactions between the Arabian, Eurasian and Anatolian plates occur at the Karlıova Triple Junction (KTJ). The relationship between tectonics and magma propagation in triple-junction tectonic settings is poorly understood. Here we present new field and numerical results on the mechanism of magma propagation at the KTJ. We explore the effects of crustal heterogeneity and anisotropy, in particular the geometry and mechanical properties of many faults and layers, on magma propagation paths under a variety of tectonic loads. We propose that two major volcanic centres in the area, the Turnadağ volcano and the Varto caldera, are both fed by comparatively shallow magma chambers at depths of about 8 km, which, in turn, are fed by a single, much larger and deeper reservoir at about 15-18 km depth. By contrast, the nearby Özenç volcanic area is fed directly by the deeper reservoir. We present a series of two-dimensional and three-dimensional numerical models showing that the present tectonic stresses encourage magma-chamber rupture and dyke injection. The results show that inversion tectonics encourages the formation of magma paths as potential feeder dykes. Our three-dimensional models allow us to explore the local stresses induced by complex loading conditions at the Karlıova triple junction, using an approach that can in future be applied to other similar tectonic regions. The numerical results indicate a great complexity in the potential magma (dyke) paths, resulting from local stresses generated by interaction between mechanical layers, major faults, and magma chambers. In particular, the results suggest three main controls on magma path formation and, eventual eruptions, at KTJ: (1) the geometry and attitude of the associated faults; (2) the heterogeneity and anisotropic of the crust; and (3) mechanical (stress) interactions between deep and shallow magma chambers.

Nakhlite meteorites are ~1.4 to 1.3 Ga old igneous rocks, aqueously altered on Mars ~630 Ma ago. We test the theory that water-rock interaction was impact driven. Electron backscatter diffraction demonstrates that the meteorites Miller Range 03346 and Lafayette were heterogeneously deformed, leading to localized regions of brecciation, plastic deformation, and mechanical twinning of augite. Numerical modeling shows that the pattern of deformation is consistent with shock-generated compressive and tensile stresses. Mesostasis within shocked areas was aqueously altered to phyllosilicates, carbonates, and oxides, suggesting a genetic link between the two processes. We propose that an impact ~630 Ma ago simultaneously deformed the nakhlite parent rocks and generated liquid water by melting of permafrost. Ensuing water-rock interaction focused on shocked mesostasis with a high density of reactive sites. The nakhlite source location must have two spatially correlated craters, one ~630 Ma old and another, ejecting the meteorites, ~11 Ma ago.

Sea-level change is thought to influence the frequencies of volcanic eruptions on glacial to interglacial timescales. However, the underlying physical processes and their importance relative to other influences (e.g. magma recharge rates), remain poorly understood. Here we compare a ~360 kyr long record of effusive and explosive eruptions from the flooded caldera volcano at Santorini (Greece) with a high resolution sea-level record spanning the last four glacial-interglacial cycles. Numerical modelling shows that when the sea level falls by 40 m below the present-day level, the induced tensile stresses in the roof of the magma chamber of Santorini trigger dyke injections. As the sea-level continues to fall to -70 or -80 m, the induced tensile stress spreads throughout the roof so that some dykes reach the surface to feed eruptions. Similarly, the volcanic activity gradually disappears after the sea-level rises above -40 m. Synchronising Santorini's stratigraphy with the sealevel record by using tephra layers in marine sediment cores shows that 208 out of 211 eruptions (both effusive and explosive) occurred during periods constrained by sea level falls (below -40m) and subsequent rises, suggesting a strong absolute sea-level control on the timing of eruptions on Santorini -a result that probably applies to many other volcanic islands around the world. Climate as a Driver of VolcanismThe climate system's influence on solid-earth processes, including volcanic and tectonic activity 1-4 is receiving increasing attention from researchers. Changes in surface loading by growth and retreat of ice-sheets have been linked to changes in volcanic activity in formerly glaciated areas on timescales from 10 3 -10 6 years [5][6][7][8][9][10][11] . Removal of an ice-sheet reduces the overburden pressure and results in additional decompression melting in the mantle. The associated stress changes in the crust facilitate dyke propagation to the surface, thereby increasing volcanic activity 10 . The effects of concomitant sealevel changes on volcanic activity, however, have not yet been firmly established. Because sea-level