Objective To analyze the morphology and vasculature of the choroid in healthy eyes using spectral-domain optical coherence tomography (SD-OCT). Design Cross-sectional retrospective review. Participants Forty-two healthy subjects (42 eyes), with no ocular disease who underwent high-definition scanning with Cirrus HD-OCT at the New England Eye Center, Boston, Massachusetts between November 2009 and September 2010. Methods The SD-OCT images were evaluated for morphological features of the choroid, including the shape of the choroid-scleral border, location of the thickest point of choroid and regions of focal choroidal thinning. Total choroidal thickness and large choroidal vessel layer thickness were measured by two independent observers experienced in analyzing OCT images using the Cirrus linear measurement tool at the fovea, 750μm nasal and temporal to the fovea. Custom software was used to calculate the ratio of choroidal stroma to the choroidal vessel lumen. Main Outcome Measures Qualitative assessment of the choroidal morphology, quantitative analysis of choroidal vasculature and use of a novel automated software to determine the ratio of choroidal stromal area to the area of choroidal vessel lumen. Results The 42 subjects had a mean age of 51.6 years. All subjects (100%) had a “bowl” or convex shape to the choroid-sclera junction and the thickest point of the choroid was under the fovea in 88.0% of the subjects. The mean choroidal thickness was 256.8±75.8μm, thickness of the large choroidal vessel layer was 204.3±65.9μm and that of medium choroidal vessel layer/choriocapillaris layer was 52.9±20.6μm beneath the fovea. The ratio of large choroidal vessel layer thickness to the total choroidal thickness beneath the fovea was 0.7±0.06. The software generated ratio of choroidal stromal area to the choroidal vessel lumen area to be 0.27±0.08, suggesting that choroidal vessel lumen forms a greater proportion of the choroid than choroidal stroma in healthy eyes. Conclusions This is the first study describing the morphology and vasculature of choroid in healthy eyes from 1-line raster scans obtained using SD-OCT. The method described holds promise, and has immediate clinical utility in recognizing subtle changes in choroidal morphology and the role of choroidal angiopathy in various disease states, that in the future might inform new treatment modalities.

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Fundus autofluorescence is a non-invasive imaging modality that measures lipofuscin that has accumulated in the retinal pigment epithelium (RPE). Excessive lipofuscin in the RPE is a common pathway found in several diseases including Stargardt's disease and age-related macular degeneration. This review discusses the role of photooxidative damage in the development of lipofuscin and the principles of fundus autofluorescence.

Fatigue mechanisms in normal intercostal muscle and muscle from patients with myasthenia gravis (MG) were evaluated by monitoring the compound muscle action potential (CMAP) and tetanic tension responses to repetitive nerve or muscle stimulation in vitro. When fatigue was induced by nerve stimulation at 30 Hz for 0.5 s every 2.5 s, about half of the original tension decreased after 30 min in normal muscle and 5 min in MG muscle. Analysis of the changes in area of CMAPs and tension indicated that impairment of neuromuscular transmission, muscle membrane excitation, and excitation-contraction (E-C) coupling and contractility accounted for 40%, 29%, and 31% of fatigue in normal muscle, and 83%, 0%, and 17% of fatigue in MG muscle. When fatigue was induced by muscle stimulation at 30 Hz, tension declined by a quarter after 30 min in normal muscle, but by a half after 17 min in MG muscle. Impairment of muscle membrane excitation and E-C coupling and contractility accounted for 58% and 42% of fatigue in normal muscle, and 22% and 78% of fatigue in MG muscle. Thus, fatigue of normal muscle is caused by impairment of at least four processes, and enhanced fatigue of MG muscle is caused by greater impairment of neuromuscular transmission, E-C coupling, and contractility.