Induction of protein-protein interactions is a daunting challenge, but recent studies show promise for small molecules that specifically bring two or more protein molecules together for enhanced or novel biological effect. The first such bifunctional molecules were the rapamycin- and FK506-based “Chemical Inducers of Dimerization”, but the field has since expanded with new molecules and new applications in chemical genetics and cell biology. Examples include coumermycin-mediated gyrase B dimerization, proteolysis targeting chimeric molecules (PROTACS), drug hybrids, and strategies for exploiting multivalency in toxin binding and antibody recruitment. This review discusses these and other advances in the design and use of bifunctional small molecules, and potential strategies for future systems.

Insulin resistance is a metabolic syndrome commonly seen in obesity. Leptin, the obese gene product, plays a role in the regulation of cardiac function. Elevated leptin levels have been demonstrated under insulin-resistant states such as obesity and hypertension, although their role in cardiac dysfunction is unknown. This study was designed to determine the impact of prediabetic insulin resistance on leptin levels and leptin-induced cardiac contractile response. Whole-body insulin resistance was generated with a 10-week dietary sucrose feeding. Contractile and intracellular Ca 2+ properties were evaluated in ventricular myocytes using an IonOptixt system. The contractile indices analyzed included peak shortening (PS), time-to-PS (TPS), time-to-90% relengthening (TR 90 ), maximal velocity of shortening/relengthening (7dL/dt), fura-fluorescence intensity change (DFFI) and decay rate (t). Sucrose-fed rats displayed significantly elevated body weight and plasma leptin levels, depressed PS, 7dL/dt, shortened TPS, prolonged TR 90 and t, as well as reduced DFFI compared to the starch-fed control group. Leptin (1-1000 nM) elicited a concentration-dependent depression of PS and DFFI in myocytes from both starch and sucrose groups. Leptin-induced contractile depression was abolished by the nitric oxide synthase inhibitor No-nitro-L-arginine methyle ester, elevation of the extracellular Ca 2+ concentration, the Janus activated kinase 2 inhibitor AG-490 or the mitogen activated protein kinase inhibitor SB203580 in myocytes from both sucrose and starch groups. Moreover, AG-490 and SB203580 unmasked a positive response of PS in myocytes from both groups. These data indicate that insulin resistance directly induces hyperleptinemia and cardiac contractile dysfunction, without affecting leptin-mediated cardiac contractile function at the myocyte level.

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Triptolide is a potent natural product, with documented antiproliferative, immunosuppressive, anti-inflammatory, antifertility, and anti-polycystic kidney disease effects. Despite a wealth of knowledge about the biology of this compound, direct intracellular target proteins have remained elusive. We synthesized a biotinylated photoaffinity derivative of triptolide, and used it to identify dCTP pyrophosphatase 1 (DCTPP1) as a triptolide-interacting protein. Free triptolide interacts directly with recombinant DCTPP1, and inhibits the enzymatic activity of this protein. Triptolide is thus the first dCTP pyrophosphatase inhibitor identified, and DCTPP1 is a biophysically validated target of triptolide.