The feeding of marine predators is a popular means by which tourists and tour operators can facilitate close observation and interaction with wildlife. Shark-feeding has become the most developed provisioning activity around the world, despite its controversial nature. Amongst other detrimental effects, the long-term aggregation of sharks can modify the natural behaviour of the animals , potentially increase their aggression toward humans, and favour inbreeding. During 949 diving surveys conducted over 44 mo, we investigated the ecology and residence patterns of 36 photo-identified adult sicklefin lemon sharks Negaprion acutidens. The group contained 20 females and 16 males. From this long-term survey, we identified 5 different behavioural groups that we described as 'new sharks' (7), 'missing sharks' (4), 'resident sharks' (13), 'unpredictable sharks' (5) and 'ghost sharks' (7). In spite of movements in and out of the area by some males and females, which were probably related to mating, the general trend was that residency significantly increased during the study, particularly in males, showing a risk of inbreeding due to the reduction of shark mobility. Intra-and interspecific aggression was also witnessed, leading to an increased risk of potentially severe bites to humans. Our findings suggest the need for a revision of the legal framework of the provision-ing activity in French Polynesia, which could include a yearly closure period to decrease shark behavioural modifications due to long-term shark-feeding activities.

Abstract. Most arguments invoked so far by the scientific community in favour of shark conservation rely on the ecological importance of sharks, and have little impact on management policies. During a 57-month study, we were able to individually recognise 39 sicklefin lemon sharks that support a shark-feeding ecotourism activity in Moorea Island, French Polynesia. We calculated the direct global revenue generated by the provisioning site, based on the expenses of local and international divers. The total yearly revenue was around USD5.4 million and the 13 sharks most often observed at the site had an average contribution each of around USD316 699. Any one of these sharks represents a potential contribution of USD2.64 million during its life span. We argue that publicising economic values per individual will be more effective than general declarations about their ecological importance for convincing policy makers and fishers that a live shark is more valuable than a dead shark for the local economy. Studies monitoring the potential negative ecological effects of long-term feeding of sharks should, however, be conducted to ensure these are also considered. Besides declarations about the nonconsumptive direct-use value of sharks, as promoted by ecotourism, the calculation of their other economic values should also benefit shark conservation.

Human pressures have put many top predator populations at risk of extinction. Recent years have seen alarming declines in sharks worldwide, while their resilience remains poorly understood. Studying the ecology of small populations of marine predators is a priority to better understand their ability to withstand anthropogenic and environmental stressors. In the present study, we monitored a naturally small island population of 40 adult sicklefin lemon sharks in Moorea, French Polynesia over 5 years. We reconstructed the genetic relationships among individuals and determined the population’s mating system. The genetic network illustrates that all individuals, except one, are interconnected at least through one first order genetic relationship. While this species developed a clear inbreeding avoidance strategy involving dispersal and migration, the small population size, low number of breeders, and the fragmented environment characterizing these tropical islands, limits its complete effectiveness.

Trophic interactions at the top of the coral reef food chain Sharks, as apex predators, play a fundamental role in most coral reef ecosystems by influencing communities directly via predation or via behaviourally mediated trophic interactions (Heithaus et al. 2008). Healthy coral reefs are generally regulated by small sharks, such as grey reef sharks (Carcharhinus amblyrhynchos). Although small sharks have been found in the stomachs of the great hammerhead shark (Sphyrna mokarran) (Cliff 1995), direct observations of predation on free-living reef sharks are absent. Here, we report upon a great hammerhead shark preying on a grey reef shark at the World Heritage atoll of Fakarava (French Polynesia). At sunset on 9 May 2011, a large female great hammerhead shark (~4.5-5 m TL) was observed to attack a school of approximately 100 grey reef sharks at a depth of 20-30 m in the pass 'Garuae'. The hammerhead charged a grey reef shark (~1 m TL) from the deep. Its approach was very fast and deliberate. The predator then moved to the middle of the pass holding its prey motionless in its jaws (Fig. 1). The hammerhead disappeared slowly into the lagoon pursued by the entire school of grey reef sharks. Schools of grey reef sharks have often been observed to be frightened by great hammerhead sharks and to pursue their assailant. Several hypotheses may explain the response of the other grey reef sharks: a collective mobbing as found in dolphins or seals (Kirwood and Dickie 2005) or simply an attempt to feed opportunistically on the carcass. Although sharks may not be a major component of the great hammerhead shark's diet, this rare field observation confirms previous data from stomach contents, further documents this predator-prey interaction and highlights the complexity of the trophic food chain in healthy coral reef ecosystems.

, mostly related to the lack of a reference site or a control group in the methodology. In our study, we distinguished between 39 individuals of sicklefin lemon sharks Negaprion acutidens, mainly based on photo-identification. Our study was based on the field-survey approach, with time (a continuous variable) as the source of variation, and thus a control group was not necessary. We provide here additional data that support the notion that abundance of lemon sharks on the provisioning site was increasing, both in their number and fidelity. We maintain our conclusion that sicklefin lemon shark provisioning off Moorea Island can continue, but should be more intensely controlled.