Key Points• Nonanticoagulant heparin is shown to bind histones and provide cytoprotection in mouse models of sterile inflammation and sepsis.Extracellular histones are considered to be major mediators of death in sepsis. Although sepsis is a condition that may benefit from low-dose heparin administration, medical doctors need to take into consideration the potential bleeding risk in sepsis patients who are already at increased risk of bleeding due to a consumption coagulopathy. Here, we show that mechanisms that are independent of the anticoagulant properties of heparin may contribute to the observed beneficial effects of heparin in the treatment of sepsis patients. We show that nonanticoagulant heparin, purified from clinical grade heparin, binds histones and prevents histone-mediated cytotoxicity in vitro and reduces mortality from sterile inflammation and sepsis in mouse models without increasing the risk of bleeding. Our results demonstrate that administration of nonanticoagulant heparin is a novel and promising approach that may be further developed to treat patients suffering from sepsis. (Blood. 2014;123(7):1098-1101) IntroductionSepsis and septic shock are serious clinical problems with high mortality rates for which no adequate treatment currently exists. 1Neutrophils respond to infection with the formation of neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs), 2,3 intricate networks containing DNA as the major structural component and proteins like histones and neutrophil elastase, which have antimicrobial properties. Extracellular histones, however, also exhibit cytotoxic activity toward host cells, including the endothelium. 4,5 Histone release can thus trigger a feedback cascade, resulting in more cell death and additional release of histones.6 Consequently, extracellular histones are considered interesting therapeutic targets for sepsis treatment. 4 Histones are positively charged, and NET-mediated cytotoxicity can be reduced with polysialic acid, a negatively charged polymer. 5 We hypothesized that heparin, a negatively charged polysaccharide, blocks histone cytotoxicity and reduces mortality from sterile inflammation and sepsis. Low dose unfractionated heparin (UFH) has been tested in a clinical trial as a complementary treatment of sepsis. 7 The study rationale linked infection, inflammation, and coagulation in sepsis and sought to inhibit the coagulation part with low doses of heparin so as not to increase the risk of bleeding in a patient who is already at risk due to sepsis-associated consumption coagulopathy. 7,8 Nevertheless, although this study failed to demonstrate a significant benefit on 28-day mortality rate, we hypothesize that the minor beneficial effects of heparin observed might be attributed to a mechanism independent of the anticoagulant properties of heparin. We reasoned that removing the anticoagulant fraction from UFH would yield an antithrombin affinity-depleted heparin (AADH) that neutralizes histone-mediated cytotoxicity and effectively treats sepsis without increasing risk of bleeding....
Apoptosis, or programmed cell death, plays an important role in the etiology of a variety of diseases, including cancer and myocardial infarction. Visualization of apoptosis would allow both early detection of therapy efficiency and evaluation of disease progression. To that aim, we synthesized two types of lipid-based bimodal contrast agents that enable the detection of apoptotic cells with both MRI and optical techniques. MR contrast was provided either by entrapment of iron oxide particles within pegylated micelles or by incorporation of Gd-DTPA-bis(stearylamide) (Gd-DTPA-BSA) lipids within the lipid bilayer of pegylated liposomes. The resulting contrast agents were approximately 10 and 100 nm in diameter, respectively. Additional fluorescent lipids were incorporated in the lipid (bi)layer of the contrast agents to allow parallel detection with optical methods. Multiple human recombinant annexin A5 molecules were covalently coupled to introduce specificity for apoptotic cells. Both annexin A5-conjugated contrast agents were shown to significantly increase the relaxation rates of apoptotic cell pellets compared to untreated control cells and apoptotic cells that were treated with nonfunctionalized nanoparticles. Increased relaxation rates were confirmed to originate from association of the contrast agents to apoptotic cells by confocal microscopy. The targeted nanoparticles presented in this study, which differ both in size and in magnetic properties, may have applications for the in vivo detection of apoptosis.
A quantum-dot-based nanoparticle is presented, allowing visualization of cell death and activated platelets with fluorescence imaging and MRI. The particle exhibits intense fluorescence and a large MR relaxivity (r1) of 3000-4500 mM-1 s-1 per nanoparticle due to a newly designed construct increasing the gadolinium-DTPA load. The nanoparticle is suitable for both anatomic and subcellular imaging of structures in the vessel wall and is a promising bimodal contrast agent for future in vivo imaging studies.
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