Introduction:: Type 2 Diabetes (T2D) is a major health problem worldwide. This metabolic disease is indicated by high blood glucose levels due to insufficient insulin production by the pancreas. An inflammatory response occurs as a result of the immune response to high blood glucose levels as well as the presence of inflammatory mediators produced by adipocytes and macrophages in fat tissue. This low and chronic inflammation damages the pancreatic beta cells and leads to insufficient insulin production, which results in hyperglycemia. : Hyperglycemia in diabetes is thought to cause dysfunction of the immune response, which fails to control the spread of invading pathogens in diabetic subjects. Therefore, diabetic subjects are known to more susceptible to infections. The increased prevalence of T2D will increase the incidence of infectious diseases and related comorbidities. Objective: : This review provides an overview of the immunological aspect of T2D and the possible mechanisms that result in increased infections in diabetics. Conclusion: : A better understanding of how immune dysfunctions occur during hyperglycemia can lead to novel treatments and preventions for infectious diseases and T2D comorbidities, thus improving the outcome of infectious disease treatment in T2D patients.

Summary The function of T cells is tightly controlled by positive and negative regulations to ensure both successful pathogen elimination and limitation of immune‐mediated pathology. One of the mechanisms to negatively regulate the magnitude and duration of effector T cells is the expression of inhibitory checkpoint molecules (ICs) on the surface membrane of T cells. During acute viral infections, expression of these molecules is upregulated to limit the effector functions following T‐cell activation. The expression is subsequently downregulated following viral clearance. In contrast, these molecules are continuously expressed in virus‐specific T cells found in persistently infected patients, including cases of chronic hepatitis B virus (HBV) and hepatitis C virus (HCV). The continuously high expression of ICs is responsible for the dysfunctional states of HBV‐ and HCV‐specific T cells in chronic phases, known as T‐cell exhaustion. Hence, understanding the regulation of their expression is essential to give insight into pathogenesis as well as the development of effective immune‐based antiviral therapies. This review discusses recent updated research on expression of ICs during acute and chronic phases of HBV and HCV infections as well as during the clinical course of antiviral therapy.

Objective. This study is aimed at investigating if point-of-care testing for HbA1c (POCT-HbA1c) using the HemoCue® HbA1c 501 system could be an alternative method for diabetes screening and monitoring to replace the HbA1c measurement in a standard diagnostic laboratory. Design. This was a cross-sectional study to assess the agreement between POCT and a standard laboratory measurement method for determining the level of HbA1c. Setting and Participants. In total, 108 participants were recruited to participate in this study, consisting of 61 diabetics and 47 nondiabetics. The diabetic group comprised 37 females and 24 males, diagnosed with type 2 diabetes mellitus (DM) and undergoing diabetes treatment at several community health care centres in Bandung, West Java. The nondiabetic group consisted of 15 female and 32 male patients of several community health care centres and healthy volunteers. Sample Collection and Analysis. A venous blood sample was taken for routine HbA1c analysis by the diagnostic laboratory method. For the POCT-HbA1c, a blood sample was taken from the fingertip at the same time and analysed with the HemoCue® HbA1c 501 system. Outcome Measures. The HbA1c results of both methods were compared and analysed with a Bland-Altman agreement plot. The sensitivity and specificity of the POCT-HbA1c data were also compared with those of the standard diagnostic results. Results. Based on the Bland-Altman plot, the HbA1c level for 100 out of 108 (92.59%) subjects analysed by the POCT-HbA1c was within the range of the 95% limit of agreement. Compared with the standard diagnostic assay, the sensitivity of the POCT-HbA1c was 97.83% and its specificity was 77.42%. Conclusions. The high sensitivity and accuracy of POCT-HbA1c indicate that it is a potential method for diabetes screening and monitoring to replace the routine diagnostic laboratory HbA1c measurement, especially when a rapid result is required.

Pendahuluan: Data epidemiologis menunjukkan bahwa sebagian besar populasi harus divaksinasi untuk mencapai kekebalan komunitas. Tujuan dari penelitian ini adalah untuk mengetahui karakteristik dan kesediaan masyarakat Indonesia menerima vaksinasi COVID-19. Metode: Penelitian ini menggunakan desain studi cross-sectional pada Warga Negara Indonesia (WNI) usia 18-60 tahun. Sampel diambil dengan metode convenience sampling. Data dalam penelitian ini dikumpulkan menggunakan kuesioner anonim yang didistribusikan secara online dari tanggal 3 hingga 12 Maret 2021. Hasil:  Hasil Penelitian menunjukkan  dari total sample sebanyak 483 orang, mayoritas responden berjenis kelamin perempuan (71,9%), berusia 18-25 tahun (57%), tamat S1 (52%), tenaga kesahatan (59,3%), belum menikah (66,2%), berdomisili di jawa (82,7%), dan telah vaksinasi covid tahap 1 (83,5%). Hasil uji Chi-square menunjukkan adanya hubungan yang signifikan antara jenis kelamin (p = 0,015), domisili (p = 0,000), Tingkat Pendidikan (p = 0,000), pekerjaan (p = 0,000), kepemilikan asuransi (p = 0,000), riwayat vaksinasi sebelumnya (p = 0,004) dan kesediaan vaksinasi COVID-19. Sedangkan usia dan riwayat penyakit penyerta (comorbid) tidak berhubungan dengan kesediaan vaksinasi COVID-19. Kesimpulan: Adanya hubungan yang signifikan antara jenis kelamin, domisili, tenaga kesehatan, kepemilikan asuransi kesehatan, dan riwayat vaksin sebelumnya dengan kesediaan menerima vaksin COVID-19 (p <0.05) di Indonesia.

Background: Diabetes mellitus (DM) and tuberculosis (TB) both are major global health problems. DM, primarily type 2 DM (T2DM) is often associated with obesity, hypertriglyceridemia, and high cholesterol and is a risk factor for TB. Diabetes is also associated with poor TB treatment outcomes. Since Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb) relies on host nutrients, lipids, and cholesterol to survive, more knowledge about the nutritional status and lipid profile of T2DM, TB, and TB-T2DM patients is needed in order to establish novel TB management strategies for TB-T2DM patients.Methods: Cross-sectional study was conducted to compare the nutritional status and lipid profile of TB-T2DM, TB, and T2DM only patients using data collected from several Primary Health Cares in Bandung, Indonesia. In total, 77 TB-T2DM, TB only, and T2DM only patients treated at the Primary Health Care Centers in Bandung, Indonesia, were recruited.Results: BMI and the lipid profiles of the TB patients were significantly lower than those of T2DM patients (p<0.05). BMI and HDL levels were significantly lower in the TB-T2DM patients than those in T2DM patients (p<0.001 and p=0.04). Total cholesterol levels were significantly lower in TB compared to those in the TB-T2DM group (p=0.025).Conclusion: All lipid profiles showed a similar pattern with the T2DM without TB having the highest lipid levels, followed by TB-T2DM and TB patients.