Genes related to carbohydrate metabolism have evolved rapidly in eusocial bees, including honey bees. However, the characterisation of carbohydrate metabolism genes has not been reported in
Apis andreniformis
or
Apis cerana indica
. This study aimed to characterise
phosphofructokinase
(PFK) and
pyruvate kinase
(PK) genes in these honey bee species and to analyse the evolution of the genus
Apis
using these genes. This study found the first data regarding
A. andreniformis
PFK and PK-like nucleotide sequences. A BLAST-n algorithm-based search showed that
A. andreniformis
and
A. c. indica
PFK and PK genes were homologous with those of
Apis florea
and
Apis cerana cerana
from Korea, respectively. Multiple alignments of PFKs from five
Apis
species showed many exon gains and losses, but only one among the PKs. Thus, the exon–intron organisation of the PK genes may be more conserved compare with that of the PFKs. Another evolutionary pattern indicated that more nucleotide substitutions occurred in
Apis
’ PK than PFK genes. Deduced PFK amino acid sequences revealed a PFK consensus pattern of 19 amino acids, while the deduced PK amino acid sequences were predicted to have barrel and alpha/beta domains. Based on these two metabolism-related genes, The Neighbour-joining and Maximum likelihood phylogenetic trees are congruent and revealed that the
A. andreniformis
and
A. florea
group were in the basal position.
Apis mellifera
,
A. cerana
, and
Apis dorsata
formed a monophyletic clade, although the positions of
A. mellifera
and
A. dorsata
were different in the nucleotide- and amino acid-based phylogenetic trees.
Getah kemenyan dengan genus Boswellia telah lama digunakan secara tradisional pada beberapa penyakit. Kandungan Boswellia salah satunya adalah asam boswellic. Asam boswellic memiliki aktivitas neuroprotektif dan antiinflamasi. Beberapa jenis asam boswellic yang paling banyak diteliti mengenai efek farmakologi adalah asam 11-keto-β-boswelik (KBA), asam asetil-11-keto-β-boswellik (AKBA), dan β-boswelik (βBA). βBA diteliti memiliki efektivitas permeabel terhadap Blood Brain Barrier (BBB) dibandingkan jenis asam boswellic lainnya. Oleh karena itu, βBA memiliki potensi yang lebih besar dalam pengaruhnya pada otak terutama hippocampus. Review ini bertujuan untuk memberikan informasi lengkap dan membahas mengenai pengaruh boswellic acid pada performa hippocampus di otak terutama efek pada fungsi kognitif, efek farmakologis pada studi in vivo dan invitro, serta mekanisme molekuler sehingga diharapkan dapat menjadi pengetahuan sebagai acuan dalam melakukan penelitian lanjutan. Pemberian asam boswellic memberikan efek neuroprotektif dan antiinflamasi pada hippocampus sehingga dapat bekerja menghambat apoptosis sel di hippocampus, meningkatkan viabilitas sel saraf, dan meningkatkan kemampuan learning dan memori serta kognitif melalui anti-infalamasi. Beberapa mekanisme molekuler asam boswellic yang dapat mempengaruhi performa hippocampus adalah 5-Lipoxygenase (5-LOX), peningkatan Nuclear factor erythroid 2–related factor 2 (Nrf2), penekanan aktifitas acetylcholinesterase (AChE), dan pengaturan Ca (2+/-) dan protein kinase teraktivasi mitogen (MAPK). Akan tetapi, penelitian mengenai pengaruh boswellic acid pada performa hippocampus masih sangat terbatas dan perlu dilakukan penelitian lebih lanjut terutama pada manusia.
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