Sjögren's syndrome is a chronic autoimmune disorder characterized by inflammation of salivary glands resulting in impaired secretory function. Our present studies indicate that chronic exposure of salivary epithelium to TNF-α and/or IFN-γ alters tight junction integrity, leading to secretory dysfunction. Resolvins of the D-series (RvDs) are endogenous lipid mediators derived from DHA that regulate excessive inflammatory responses leading to resolution and tissue homeostasis. In this study, we addressed the hypothesis that activation of the RvD1 receptor ALX/FPR2 in salivary epithelium prevents and/or resolves the TNF-α-mediated disruption of acinar organization and enhances monolayer formation. Our results indicate that 1) the RvD1 receptor ALX/FPR2 is present in fresh, isolated cells from mouse salivary glands and in cell lines of salivary origin; and 2) the agonist RvD1 (100 ng/ml) abolished tight junction and cytoskeletal disruption caused by TNF-α and enhanced cell migration and polarity in salivary epithelium. These effects were blocked by the ALX/FPR2 antagonist butyloxycarbonyl-Phe-Leu-Phe-Leu-Phe. The ALX/FPR2 receptor signals via modulation of the phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K)/Akt signaling pathways since, in our study, blocking PI3K activation with LY294002, a potent and selective PI3K inhibitor, prevented RvD1-induced cell migration. Furthermore, Akt gene silencing with the corresponding siRNA almost completely blocked the ability of Par-C10 cells to migrate. Our findings suggest that RvD1 receptor activation promotes resolution of inflammation and tissue repair in salivary epithelium, which may have relevance in the restoration of salivary gland dysfunction associated with Sjögren's syndrome.

The heterologous expression and activation of the human P2Y2 nucleotide receptor (P2Y2R) in human 1321N1 astrocytoma cells stimulates α‐secretase‐dependent cleavage of the amyloid precursor protein (APP), causing extracellular release of the non‐amyloidogenic protein secreted amyloid precursor protein (sAPPα). To determine whether a similar response occurs in a neuronal cell, we analyzed whether P2Y2R‐mediated production of sAPPα occurs in rat primary cortical neurons (rPCNs). In rPCNs, P2Y2R mRNA and receptor activity were virtually absent in quiescent cells, whereas overnight treatment with the pro‐inflammatory cytokine interleukin‐1β (IL‐1β) up‐regulated both P2Y2R mRNA expression and receptor activity by four‐fold. The up‐regulation of the P2Y2R was abrogated by pre‐incubation with Bay 11‐7085, an IκB‐α phosphorylation inhibitor, which suggests that P2Y2R mRNA transcript levels are regulated through nuclear factor‐κ‐B (NFκB) signaling. Furthermore, the P2Y2R agonist Uridine‐5′‐triphosphate (UTP) enhanced the release of sAPPα in rPCNs treated with IL‐1β or transfected with P2Y2R cDNA. UTP‐induced release of sAPPα from rPCNs was completely inhibited by pre‐treatment of the cells with the metalloproteinase inhibitor TACE inhibitor (TAPI‐2) or the phosphatidylinositol 3‐kinase (PI3K) inhibitor LY294002, and was partially inhibited by the MAPK/extracellular signal‐regulated kinase inhibitor U0126 and the protein kinase C inhibitor GF109203. These data suggest that P2Y2R‐mediated release of sAPPα from cortical neurons is directly dependent on a disintegrin and metalloproteinase (ADAM) 10/17 and PI3K activity, whereas extracellular signal‐regulated kinase 1/2 and PI3K activity may indirectly regulate APP processing. These results demonstrate that elevated levels of pro‐inflammatory cytokines associated with neurodegenerative diseases, such as IL‐1β, can enhance non‐amyloidogenic APP processing through up‐regulation of the P2Y2R in neurons.

Baker OJ, Camden JM, Redman RS, Jones JE, Seye CI, Erb L, Weisman GA. Proinflammatory cytokines tumor necrosis factor-␣ and interferon-␥ alter tight junction structure and function in the rat parotid gland Par-C10 cell line.

Oropharyngeal candidiasis (OPC, thrush) is an opportunistic infection caused by the commensal fungus Candida albicans. An understanding of immunity to Candida has recently begun to unfold with the identification of fungal pattern-recognition receptors such as C-type lectin receptors, which trigger protective T-helper (Th)17 responses in the mucosa. Hyper-IgE syndrome (HIES/Job’s syndrome) is a rare congenital immunodeficiency characterized by dominant-negative mutations in signal transducer and activator of transcription 3, which is downstream of the Th17-inductive cytokines interleukin (IL)-6 and IL-23, and hence patients with HIES exhibit dramatic Th17 deficits. HIES patients develop oral and mucocutaneous candidiasis, supporting a protective role for Th17 cells in immunity to OPC. However, the Th17-dependent mechanisms of antifungal immunity in OPC are still poorly defined. An often unappreciated aspect of oral immunity is saliva, which is rich in antimicrobial proteins (AMPs) and exerts direct antifungal activity. In this study, we show that HIES patients show significant impairment in salivary AMPs, including β-defensin 2 and Histatins. This tightly correlates with reduced candidacidal activity of saliva and concomitantly elevated colonization with Candida. Moreover, IL-17 induces histatins in cultured salivary gland cells. This is the first demonstration that HIES is associated with defective salivary activity, and provides a mechanism for the severe susceptibility of these patients to OPC.

The cystic fibrosis gene product (CFTR) is a complex protein that functions as an adenosine 3,5-monophosphate (cAMP)-stimulated ion channel and possibly as a regulator of intracellular processes. In order to determine whether the CFTR molecule contains a functional aqueous pathway, anion, water, and urea transport were measured in Xenopus oocytes expressing CFTR. Cyclic AMP agonists induced a Cl- conductance of 94 microsiemens and an increase in water permeability of 4 x 10(-4) centimeter per second that was inhibited by a Cl- channel blocker and was dependent on anion composition. CFTR has a calculated single channel water conductance of 9 x 10(-13) cubic centimeter per second, suggesting a pore-like aqueous pathway. Oocytes expressing CFTR also showed cAMP-stimulated transport of urea but not the larger solute sucrose. Thus CFTR contains a cAMP-stimulated aqueous pore that can transport anions, water, and small solutes. The results also provide functional evidence for water movement through an ion channel.