PURPOSE: There is a paucity of data on effects of motor-level stimulation using Transcutaneous Electrical Nerve Stimulator (TENS) on ipsilateral quadriceps femoris group of muscles. The effect is also unknown on the untrained contralateral quadriceps femoris. The primary purpose of this study was to determine the effect of TENS on quadriceps muscle strength at the stimulated ipsilateral and un-stimulated contra-lateral extremities. METHODS: Participants were 50 apparently healthy undergraduate. They were recruited using sample of convenience. The right quadriceps group of muscles were stimulated for 15 minutes twice a week for 8 weeks using motor-level stimulation parameters (frequency of 85 Hz and pulse width of 100 microseconds) while the left lower limbs (control) were not stimulated. The right and left quadriceps muscle strengths were quantified using tensiometer; at onset and after 8 weeks. The data were analysed using the descriptive and inferential statistics (paired t-test and ANOVA). Alpha level was set at 0.05. RESULTS: The initial and final left strengths of the un-stimulated quadriceps muscles were 311.46 ± 58.84N and 395.60 ± 100.71N at onset and after 8 weeks respectively. After 8 weeks the un-stimulated left quadriceps strength was significantly greater than the initial value (t = −7.63, p < 0.001). Similarly, the initial and final right quadriceps strength (stimulated limb) were 351.51 ± 117. 68N and 471.31 ± 112.19N; at onset and after 8 weeks respectively. The post stimulation strength of the right quadriceps was also significantly higher than the pre-intervention strength (t = −10.25, p < 0.001). However, the increment in quadriceps strength between right and left extremities after 8 weeks was insignificant (t = −1.35, p = 0.18). There was also significant increase in the girth of the right quadriceps (t = −6.08, p = 0.001) after 8 weeks. CONCLUSION: We concluded that there were increments in both strength and muscle size of the stimulated right quadriceps using motor level stimulation parameters of TENS modality. The un-stimulated contralateral quadriceps strength also increased after 8 weeks. This implied that there was cross-training effect at the contralateral quadriceps group of muscles.

Objective To compare group supervised exercise (GE) and individual exercise (IE) in a hospital setting, in terms of improvement in quality of life, gait and balance and social interaction. Study Design and Setting This was a prospective cohort study in Jos (Plateau State) Participants Sixty seven patients completed the outcome data. Measures Daily activities were measured by the bartel index, tinetti scale (balance and gait), short form SF-36 health survey to compare quality of life. Results No statically significant differences were found between the two groups regarding the symptoms of PD. After exercise supervised by physiotherapist both group showed significant improvement from each measurement. These improvements were better in individual than group supervised exercise patient with all functionality scales with a smaller margin. Conclusion Individual supervised exercise is more effective than group supervised exercise in term of improvement in quality of life, activities of daily living, gait and balance and social interaction.

Alzheimer disease (AD) is the most common neurodegenerative disease and form of dementia. The peptide amyloid-β (Aβ) is a most therapeutic target in AD on the basis of pathological and genetic suffices that supports a role for this molecule in the disease process. Studies show that Aβ immunotherapies (Active and passive) have been revealed to alleviate cerebral Aβ levels and improve cognition in animal models of AD. In humans, clinical trial phase 2 AN1792 conducted by Elan et al stated that Aβ vaccine was stopped when ~6% of the immunized patients developed meningoencephalitis. However, some plaque clearance and modest clinical improvements were observed in patients following immunization. In this study, Aβ immunotherapies will be discussed. Passive and active method of treatment in human and non-human primate with AD will also be review. Preclinical studies and the limited data from clinical trials and non-human primates’ evidence suggest Aβ immunotherapy as the most effective in preventing or slowing the progression of AD when patients are immunized before or in the very earliest stages of disease onset. AD Biomarkers and imaging technology have improved greatly over the past 11 years and, in the future, can be used to identify pre-symptomatic, at-risk individuals who might benefit from Aβ immunotherapy

Synaptic plasticity is a biological system of specific pattern of synaptic activity result in changes in synaptic strength. This influence puberty, pregnancy hormones, sensory experiences, and brain disorders. Long-term synaptic plasticity is accompanied by protein synthesis and trafficking, leading to structural changes of the synapse. Increasing evidence connects the terminal synaptic changes with potential propagation in adolescent and pregnancy. We investigate on the synaptic structural plasticity, which has mainly been studied with in vivo two-photon laser scanning microscopy. We also discuss how a different type of synapses, the multi-contact synapses associated with pregnancy

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