The germline mutation rate determines the pace of genome evolution and is an evolving parameter itself1. However, little is known about what determines its evolution, as most studies of mutation rates have focused on single species with different methodologies2. Here we quantify germline mutation rates across vertebrates by sequencing and comparing the high-coverage genomes of 151 parent–offspring trios from 68 species of mammals, fishes, birds and reptiles. We show that the per-generation mutation rate varies among species by a factor of 40, with mutation rates being higher for males than for females in mammals and birds, but not in reptiles and fishes. The generation time, age at maturity and species-level fecundity are the key life-history traits affecting this variation among species. Furthermore, species with higher long-term effective population sizes tend to have lower mutation rates per generation, providing support for the drift barrier hypothesis3. The exceptionally high yearly mutation rates of domesticated animals, which have been continually selected on fecundity traits including shorter generation times, further support the importance of generation time in the evolution of mutation rates. Overall, our comparative analysis of pedigree-based mutation rates provides ecological insights on the mutation rate evolution in vertebrates.

Background Understanding the rate and pattern of germline mutations is of fundamental importance for understanding evolutionary processes. Results Here we analyzed 19 parent-offspring trios of rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta) at high sequencing coverage of ∼76× per individual and estimated a mean rate of 0.77 × 10−8de novo mutations per site per generation (95% CI: 0.69 × 10−8 to 0.85 × 10−8). By phasing 50% of the mutations to parental origins, we found that the mutation rate is positively correlated with the paternal age. The paternal lineage contributed a mean of 81% of the de novo mutations, with a trend of an increasing male contribution for older fathers. Approximately 3.5% of de novo mutations were shared between siblings, with no parental bias, suggesting that they arose from early development (postzygotic) stages. Finally, the divergence times between closely related primates calculated on the basis of the yearly mutation rate of rhesus macaque generally reconcile with divergence estimated with molecular clock methods, except for the Cercopithecoidea/Hominoidea molecular divergence dated at 58 Mya using our new estimate of the yearly mutation rate. Conclusions When compared to the traditional molecular clock methods, new estimated rates from pedigree samples can provide insights into the evolution of well-studied groups such as primates.

32Understanding the rate and pattern of germline mutations is of fundamental importance for 33 understanding evolutionary processes. Here we analyzed 19 parent-offspring trios of rhesus macaques 34 (Macaca mulatta) at high sequencing coverage of ca. 76X per individual, and estimated an average 35 r a t e of 0.73 × 10 −8 de novo mutations per site per generation (95 % CI: 0.65 × 10 −8 -0.81 × 36 10 −8 ). By phasing 50 % of the mutations to parental origins, we found that the mutation rate is 37 positively correlated with the paternal age. The paternal lineage contributed an average of 80 % of 38 the de novo mutations, with a trend of an increasing male contribution for older fathers. About 1.9 39 % of de novo mutations were shared between siblings, with no parental bias, suggesting that they 40 arose from early development (postzygotic) stages. Finally, the divergence times between closely 41 related primates calculated based on the yearly mutation rate of rhesus macaque generally 42 reconcile with divergence estimated with molecular clock methods, except for the 43 Cercopithecidae/Hominoidea molecular divergence dated at 54 Mya using our new estimate of the 44 yearly mutation rate. 45

Ant colonies are higher-level organisms consisting of specialized reproductive and non-reproductive individuals that differentiate early in development, similar to germ–soma segregation in bilateral Metazoa. Analogous to diverging cell lines, developmental differentiation of individual ants has often been considered in epigenetic terms but the sets of genes that determine caste phenotypes throughout larval and pupal development remain unknown. Here, we reconstruct the individual developmental trajectories of two ant species, Monomorium pharaonis and Acromyrmex echinatior, after obtaining >1,400 whole-genome transcriptomes. Using a new backward prediction algorithm, we show that caste phenotypes can be accurately predicted by genome-wide transcriptome profiling. We find that caste differentiation is increasingly canalized from early development onwards, particularly in germline individuals (gynes/queens) and that the juvenile hormone signalling pathway plays a key role in this process by regulating body mass divergence between castes. We quantified gene-specific canalization levels and found that canalized genes with gyne/queen-biased expression were enriched for ovary and wing functions while canalized genes with worker-biased expression were enriched in brain and behavioural functions. Suppression in gyne larvae of Freja, a highly canalized gyne-biased ovary gene, disturbed pupal development by inducing non-adaptive intermediate phenotypes between gynes and workers. Our results are consistent with natural selection actively maintaining canalized caste phenotypes while securing robustness in the life cycle ontogeny of ant colonies.

This paper focused on the relationship between the orientation of an apartment and its property value. Firstly, we used Hedonic model to decompose the characteristic prices of an apartment, and adopted FGLS to estimate the regression parameters to avoid the adverse consequences caused by heteroscedasticity phenomenon. The empirical result shows that the orientation is not the key factor in the demander's purchase process. Secondly, in the same community, we selected samples facing south and non-south as a test group and a control group. Through paired regression analysis, we find that in Chongqing's second-hand housing market, compared to the apartment having no south-facing orientation, those with it on average are valued only 1.42% .It is suggested that the evaluation practice should pay more attention to the orientation characteristics and measure orientation value according to local conditions.