Virus infection induces different cellular responses in infected cells. These include cellular stress responses like autophagy and unfolded protein response (UPR). Both autophagy and UPR are connected to programed cell death I (apoptosis) in chronic stress conditions to regulate cellular homeostasis via Bcl2 family proteins, CHOP and Beclin-1. In this review article we first briefly discuss arboviruses, influenza virus, and HIV and then describe the concepts of apoptosis, autophagy, and UPR. Finally, we focus upon how apoptosis, autophagy, and UPR are involved in the regulation of cellular responses to arboviruses, influenza virus and HIV infections.

No abstract

The influenza virus (IV) is known to be a resistant virus with frequent mutations, causing severe respiratory diseases in the upper respiratory system. Public health concerns about clinical efficacy of all conventional drugs are ambiguous; therefore, finding additional therapeutic agents is critical to prevent and control influenza outbreaks. Influenza is associated with the induction of proinflammatory cytokines. Scientists have reported that anti-inflammatory drugs, with pleiotropic effects, reduce the burden of severe influenza diseases. Therefore, statins, which are cardioprotective drugs with anti-inflammatory and immunomodulatory effects, may help patients suffering from influenza virus (IV). This review delineates the potential use of statins as an alternative therapy in treating influenza related illness.

Influenza virus is the most important cause of annual morbidities and mortalities worldwide with numerous antigenic drifts and shifts. Inaccessibility to effective drugs and vaccines has made world health authorities to be interested in traditional medicine in order to prevent spread of the infectious agent. Garlic is one of the most famous of all plants in human history. It has been shown that garlic extract has various effects on different diseases. The aim of this study was to evaluate garlic extract antiviral activity against influenza virus in cell culture. To study the potential antiviral activity, MDCK (Madin-Darbey Canin Kidney) cells were treated with effective minimal cytotoxic concentration of the extract and 100 TCID50 (50% Tissue Culture Infectious Dose) of the virus during infection at different time periods. The viral titers were determined by hemagglutination (HA) and TCID50 assays. The antiviral effect of the extract was studied at 1, 8 and 24 hours after treatment on the culture. To measure the amount of the viral genome synthesized at different times after treatment, RNA extraction, Reverse TranscriptionPolymerase Chain Reaction (RT-PCR) and free band densitometry software were performed. Although the precise mechanism has not been defined yet, it was found that garlic extract with a good selectivity index (SI) has inhibitory effect on the virus penetration and proliferation in cell culture.

The findings of this study support the antiviral activity of EBN against influenza virus and validate the traditional usage of this natural remedy by elucidation of toxicity and the molecular mechanism of action.