No abstract

A stubborn problem in alcohol epidemiology is that of standardization of unit of measurement. Consistent use of the 'standard drink' in research reports is hampered by difficulties in the assessment of the alcohol content of, particularly, self-reported drinks. Alcohol content of a drink depends on strength of the beverage and volume of the glass or container from which the beverage is taken. Both factors vary considerably between times, regions and individuals. Interview protocols and questionnaires rarely take into account the fact that people consume alcoholic beverages from a large variety of glasses and containers. In the present study the common presumption is tested of equality of alcohol content of standard and self-reported drinks. The test consisted of measuring the amount of wine, fortified wine and spirits people usually pour in the glass typical for the beverage type. The sample was drawn from the general Dutch population in 1985. The results show that on average self-reported drinks taken at home contained more than the presumed standard (10 g per drink). The deviation was highest for spirits (+26%), followed by fortified wines (+14%) and least for wine (+4%). There seemed to be a positive relationship between deviation from 'standard' and strength of the alcoholic beverage. This result is in line with data on the coverage of sales data: aggregate, survey-based spirits consumption shows the lowest coverage of sales. The effect of the difference between actual and presumed content of drinks on estimates of consumption is an overall increase of 7.5%, higher for women (+12%) than for men (+6%). Results are discussed with respect to the use of the concept of 'standard unit' in research protocols and health education campaigns.

The current evidence is in line with the hypothesis that drug use increases in times of recession because unemployment increases psychological distress which increases drug use. During times of recession, psychological support for those who lost their job and are vulnerable to drug use (relapse) is likely to be important.

Sixteen multiple drug resistant strains of Salmonella typhi belonging to Vi-phage types E1 (14) and O (2) and isolated in Southeast India in 1991 were characterized. All strains were resistant to chloramphenicol and the majority to trimethoprim and ampicillin. In all strains these resistances were encoded by plasmids of the H1 incompatibility group with molecular weights ranging from 110 to 120 megadaltons. Physicians in European countries should be aware that treatment may fail if patients with typhoid fever who have recently returned from the Indian sub-continent are given first-line treatment with chloramphenicol, trimethoprim or ampicillin. With the possible exception of young children, ciprofloxacin is currently the best choice for treatment of such patients.

Evidence points towards a relationship between the occurrence of life-events and alcohol use in the general population. The direction of the effect is, however, not unequivocal. When life-events are operationalized or categorized separately they are not only related to an increased alcohol use but also to a decreased alcohol use. Specification of the model to be tested, including buffering factors such as gender, social support, coping resources, as well as baseline consumption, is important for a correct estimation of the effect of negative life-events.