The article outlines the evolution of large multinationals as a result of the appearance of new market demands. Companies having to meet specific market demands, are shown to possess certain characteristics, related to the market demands concerned. The analysis shows that innovativeness will, in all probability, be the new market demand in the 199Os, in addition to the already existing ones of efficiency, quality and flexibility. Descriptions of ideal types illustrate the evolution of companies as they move from the Efficient Firm to the Quality Firm on to the Flexible Firm to, finally, the Innovative Firm. The phase model also includes the symptoms of crisis, when moving from one phase to another. Skipping phases appears to be difficult, if not impossible. The same holds true for moving to the next phase, while the organization has not finished with the preceding phase.

The principle of a new electrochromic display based on an oxidation-reduction reaction of an organic compound of the viologen family is described. The result is a display having a built-in memory, high contrast, a low switching voltage, and a low mean power consumption.

TOWARD THE INNOVATIVE FIRM--CHALLENGE FOR R&D MANAGEMENTAn analysis of the changing character of international competition shows how and why success is increasingly dependent upon the R&D function.OVERVIEW: Industrial strategies for multinationals have undergone profound changes. Underlying causes are to be found in new market factors, technological developments and intensified competition. More and more, it is recognized that companies are confronted with increasing demands for efficiency, quality and flexibility. Product prices are under continuous pressure, ever-higher quality standards are simply a must, and the rate of product renewal has increased considerably. under these conditions, it is increasingly difficult for companies to distinguish themselves from competitors. Innovation proves to be the magic word. This places R&D in the midst of the competitive battle, dramatically changing the role of the R&D function.Until the early 1960s, the successful firm was the Efficient Firm, having a hierarchic, bureaucratic and rational organization. The Efficient Firm directs its main efforts toward increasing efficiency; consequently, the firm is internally oriented. Adherence to standard procedures is called for, with negative sanctions as the means of control. Organizational design is based on the creation of routine tasks. Investments in Manufacturing are primarily focused upon growth and efficiency improvements, with much attention being paid to the output of machines. Little thought is given to viewing Manufacturing as a total, integrated system. The whole resembles a well-oiled, smoothly running machine. The message to the customers is, "We are cheaper." This is in line with the sellers' market conditions prevailing during this period.Effective trade barriers result in hardly any international competition, and demand almost always exceeds supply. Although growth rates are high, the environment can be called static. Large companies can reliably predict their sales turnover, both in terms of volume as well as in mix. This well-known "archetype" of the large industrial company was highly successful until the mid-1960s. R&D in the Efficient FirmThe distance between Marketing and R&D is large in the Efficient Firm, but this is hardly seen as a weakness in the absence of market-pull. Product renewal takes place at a moderate rate. It is the task of Manufacturing just to produce according to the designs of R&D. The walls between R&D and Manufacturing are taken for granted, if noticed at all. There are few, if any, contacts between R&D and customers. Product design and process engineering take place separately and consecutively. Indeed, the whole product creation process is functionally

The coloration and bleaching behavior of undoped bromide sodalite prepared by solid-state reaction and by various low-temperature hydrothermal reactions is studied. A high coloration sensitivity is obtained; for instance, a charge density of 0.5 μC/cm2 at 10 kV yields a contrast ratio of 2:1. The coloration and optical bleaching behavior is strongly dependent on the preparation method. A relation between bleaching rate and bromide deficit is found. A relation is suggested between residual coloration and the presence of oxygen on bromine sites. The effect of the doping with transition-metal ions on the bleaching behavior is studied. The doping with Fe, Ni, and Cu causes a considerable increase in bleaching rate.