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Botulinum toxin type A (BoNT/A) produced by Clostridium botulinum inhibits Ca 2ϩ -dependent acetylcholine (ACh) release (neuroexocytosis) at peripheral neuromuscular junctions, sometimes causing neuromuscular paralysis. This inhibitory effect is attributed to its metalloprotease activity to cleave the 25-kDa synaptosomal-associated protein, which is essential for the exocytotic machinery. However, deletion of this protein does not result in a complete block of neuroexocytosis, suggesting that botulinum-mediated inhibition may occur via another mechanism. Rho GTPases, a class of small GTP-binding proteins (G proteins), control actin cytoskeletal organization, thereby regulating a variety of cellular functions in various cells, including neuronal cells. We have shown that the G protein activator lysophosphatidic acid (LPA) triggered actin reorganization followed by Ca 2ϩ -dependent ACh release in nerve growth factor-treated PC12 cells and that BoNT/A blocked both events through degradation of RhoB by the proteasome. Overexpression of wild-type RhoB caused actin reorganization and enhanced the release of ACh by LPA to overcome toxin's inhibitory effect on actin reorganization/exocytosis stimulated by LPA, whereas overexpression of a dominant negative RhoB inhibited ACh release, regardless of LPA and/or toxin treatment. Finally, a knockdown of the RhoB gene via sequencespecific, post-transcriptional gene silencing reduced RhoB expression in PC12 cells, resulting in total inhibition of both actin reorganization and ACh release induced by LPA. We conclude that the RhoB signaling pathway regulates ACh release via actin cytoskeletal reorganization and that botulinum toxin inhibits neuroexocytosis by targeting RhoB pathway.

Background: Sulfur mustard (SM) is a potent chemical vesicant warfare agent that remains a significant military and civilian threat. Inhalation of SM gas causes airway inflammation and injury. In recent years, there has been increasing evidence of the effectiveness of macrolide antibiotics in treating chronic airway inflammatory diseases. In this study, the anti-cytotoxic and anti-inflammatory effects of a representative macrolide antibiotic, roxithromycin, were tested in vitro using SM-exposed normal human small airway epithelial (SAE) cells and bronchial/tracheal epithelial (BTE) cells. Cell viability, expression of proinflammatory cytokines including interleukin (IL)-1β, IL-6, IL-8 and tumor necrosis factor (TNF), and expression of inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) were examined, since these proinflammatory cytokines/mediators are import indicators of tissue inflammatory responses. We suggest that the influence of roxithromycin on SM-induced inflammatory reaction could play an important therapeutic role in the cytotoxicity exerted by this toxicant.

Background: Botulinum neurotoxin (BoNT) is the most potent poison known to mankind. Currently no antidote is available to rescue poisoned synapses. An effective medical countermeasure strategy would require developing a drug that could rescue poisoned neuromuscular synapses and include its efficient delivery specifically to poisoned presynaptic nerve terminals. Here we report a drug delivery strategy that could directly deliver toxin inhibitors into the intoxicated nerve terminal cytosol.

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