Protein posttranslational modifications (PTMs) refer to the breaking or generation of covalent bonds on the backbones or amino acid side chains of proteins and expand the diversity of proteins, which provides the basis for the emergence of organismal complexity. To date, more than 650 types of protein modifications, such as the most well‐known phosphorylation, ubiquitination, glycosylation, methylation, SUMOylation, short‐chain and long‐chain acylation modifications, redox modifications, and irreversible modifications, have been described, and the inventory is still increasing. By changing the protein conformation, localization, activity, stability, charges, and interactions with other biomolecules, PTMs ultimately alter the phenotypes and biological processes of cells. The homeostasis of protein modifications is important to human health. Abnormal PTMs may cause changes in protein properties and loss of protein functions, which are closely related to the occurrence and development of various diseases. In this review, we systematically introduce the characteristics, regulatory mechanisms, and functions of various PTMs in health and diseases. In addition, the therapeutic prospects in various diseases by targeting PTMs and associated regulatory enzymes are also summarized. This work will deepen the understanding of protein modifications in health and diseases and promote the discovery of diagnostic and prognostic markers and drug targets for diseases.

Background At the time of recurrence, many borderline ovarian tumor (BOT) patients are still young with fertility needs. The purpose of this study is to evaluate the reproductive outcomes and recurrence rate of second fertility-sparing surgery (FSS) in women with recurrent BOTs. Methods Seventy-eight women of childbearing age diagnosed with recurrent BOTs from November 2009 to 2020 whose primary treatment was FSS were included. Results The FIGO stage I disease accounted for 46.2% and serous BOT accounted for 87.2% in the study group. Forty-seven patients underwent second FSS, and the remaining 31 underwent radical surgery (RS). Seventeen patients relapsed again after second surgery, but no malignant transformation and tumor-associated deaths were reported. Compared to FIGO stage I, the FIGO stage III tumors were more likely to relapse, but there was no statistical difference in pregnancy rate among patients with different stages. In the second FSS group, recurrence rate was higher in patients who underwent oophorocystectomy compared to patients with unilateral salpingo-oophorectomy (USO), but the pregnancy rate was similar. There was no significant difference in postoperative recurrence risk between USO and RS. The recurrence rate was not associated with operative route (laparoscopy or laparotomy), or lymphadenectomy, or postoperative chemotherapy. Among the 32 patients who tried to conceive, the pregnancy rate was 46.9% and live birth rate was 81.3%. Conclusion Unilateral salpingo-oophorectomy is a safe procedure for FIGO stage I recurrent BOT patients with fertility needs, and can achieve a high postoperative pregnancy rate and live birth rate.

Skeletal muscle makes up 30-40% of the total body mass. It is of great significance in maintaining digestion, inhaling and exhaling, sustaining body posture, exercising, protecting joints and many other aspects. Moreover, muscle is also an important metabolic organ that helps to maintain the balance of sugar and fat. Defective skeletal muscle function not only limits the daily activities of the elderly but also increases the risk of disability, hospitalization and death, placing a huge burden on society and the healthcare system. Sarcopenia is a progressive decline in muscle mass, muscle strength and muscle function with age caused by environmental and genetic factors, such as the abnormal regulation of protein post-translational modifications (PTMs).

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