Measurements of the electron range R, and the backscattering coefficient η and the secondary electron yield δ at normal and tilted incidence for different elements show characteristic differences for electron energies in the range of 0.5 to 5 keV, compared with energies larger than 5 keV. The backscattering coefficient does not increase monotonically with increasing atomic number; for example, the secondary electron yield shows a lesser increase with increasing tilt angle. This can be confirmed in back‐scattered electron (BSE) and secondary electron (SE) micrographs of test specimens. The results are in rather good agreement with Monte Carlo simulations using elastic Mott cross‐sections and a continuous‐slowing‐down model with a Rao Sahib‐Wittry approach for the stopping power at low electron energies. Therefore, this method can be used to calculate quantities of BSE and SE emission, which need a larger experimental effort. Calculations of the angular distribution of BSEs show an increasing intensity with increasing atomic number at high takeoff angles than expected from a cosine law that describes the angular characteristics at high electron energies. When simulating the energy distribution of BSEs, the continuous‐slowing‐down model should be substituted by using an electron energy‐loss spectrum (EELS) that considers plasmon losses and inner‐shell ionizations individually (single‐scattering‐function model). The EELS can be approached via the theory for aluminium or from EELS spectra recorded in a transmission electron microscope for other elements. Measurements of electron range Rα En of 1 to 10 keV electrons are obtained from transmission experiments with thin films of known mass thickness. In agreement with other authors the exponent n is lower than at higher electron energies.

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The use of an analytical formula for the energy loss spectrum of plasmon, single-electron and inner-shell excitation of aluminium in the Landau theory of multiple scattering results in a better agreement with experimental values of the mean energy loss and the half width of the energy distribution of 10-100 keV electrons transmitted through aluminium foils than the original Landau theory. The same loss spectrum can be used in Monte Carlo calculations instead of a Bethe continuous slowing down approximation for a better consideration of plasmon losses and straggling and for calculating multiple scattering effects in electron energy loss spectroscopy (EELS).

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