We conducted a longitudinal investigation of differences in classroom ecological arrangements and student behaviors (processes) on low-SES and high-SES elementary students' growth in academic achievement (products). An experimental, low-SES group received Cla.ssv.ide Peer Tutoring implemented by their teachers during each grade from first through fourth, while a low-SES control group and a high-SES comparison group received teacher-designed instruction. Results indicated that the experimental group and the comparison group, with distinctly different ecological arrangements and significantly higher levels of academic engagement, produced significantly greater product gains than did the control group. The implications of these findings are discussed.Research has established the importance of classroom processes to students* academic development (e.g., Brophy, 1986). Such processes include specific teacher-student interactions (e.g., Brophy, 1979), specific teacher behaviors and teaching functions (e.g., Rosenshine & Stevens, 1986), time allocated to academic tasks (e.g., Gettinger, 1985), and time students are engaged in specific academic behaviors (e.g., Greenwood, Delquadri, & Hall, 1984).Teaching practices known to orchestrate these processes include direct instruction (e.g., Becker, 1977;Becker & Gersten, 1982), mastery learning (e.g., Stallings & Stipek, 1986), cooperative learning strategies (e.g., Slavin, Madden, & Leavey, 1984), and peer tutoring (e.g., Greenwood, Carta, & Hall, 1988). In experimental evaluations, these practices have produced academic growth effect sizes from 0.25 to 2.00 standard deviations above control groups (e.g., Becker, 1977;Bloom, 1984;Walberg, 1986). These practices have also correlated positively with improvements in students* self-esteem (e.g., Becker, 1977) and peer relations (e.g., Warring, Johnson, Maruyama, & Johnson, 1985).

The effects of contingent teacher attention on study behavior were investigated. Individual rates of study were recorded for one first-grade and five third-grade pupils who had high rates of disruptive or dawdling behavior. A reinforcement period (in which teacher attention followed study behavior and non-study behaviors were ignored) resulted in sharply increased study rates. A brief reversal of the contingency (attention occurred only after periods of non-study behavior) again produced low rates of study. Reinstatement of teacher attention as reinforcement for study once again markedly increased study behavior. Follow-up observations indicated that the higher study rates were maintained after the formal program terminated.

The purpose of this article is to discuss classwide peer tutoring as an effective instructional procedure. The article is organized into three major sections: (a) general principles of instruction, (b) description of classwide peer tutoring procedures, and (c) review of effectiveness data concerning classroom process (i.e., ecological and behavioral factors) and student achievement outcomes. It concludes with a discussion of the procedure and areas of future research and application.

This article describes and illustrates with two case studies a relatively novel form of the multiple-baseline design called the changing criterion design. It also presents the design's formal requirements, and suggests target behaviors and circumstances for which the design might be useful.

The effects of self-recording on classroom behavior of two junior high school students was investigated. In the first experiment, study behavior of an eighth-grade girl in history class was recorded. Following baseline observations her counselor provided slips for the girl to record whether or not she studied in class. This resulted in an increase in study. When slips were withdrawn, study decreased and then increased once self-recording was reinstated. After teacher praise for study was increased, self-recording was discontinued without significant losses in study behavior. In the final phase, increased praise was also withdrawn and study remained at a high level. In the second experiment, the number of talk outs emitted by an eighth-grade boy were recorded during math period. Following baseline, slips for recording talk outs were issued for the first half of the period, for the second half, and then for the entire period. Talk outs decreased when self-recording was in effect and increased again when self-recording was discontinued. When self-recording was reinstituted in the final phase there was a slight, though not significant decrease in talking out when compared to the baseline condition.