Crop simulation models can be effective tools to assist with optimization of resources for a particular agroecological zone. The goal of this study was to determine the influence of N rates with different timing of application to wheat crop using prominent varieties using the CSM-CERES-Wheat model of the decision support system for agrotechnology transfer (DSSAT). Data were focused for yield traits, i.e., number of tillers, number of grains, grain weight, grain yield, biomass, and grain N content. To test the applicability of the CSM-CERES-Wheat version 4.7.5 model for agroclimatic conditions of Peshawar, Pakistan, experimental data from two years of experiments (2016–17 and 2017–18) were used for model calibration and evaluation. The simulation results of two years agreed well with field measured data for three commercial varieties. The model efficiency (R2) for wheat varieties was above 0.94 for variables tiller number per unit area (m−2), number of grains (m−2) and number of grains (spike−1), 1000 grain weight (mg), biomass weight (kg ha−1), grain yield (kg ha−1), and harvest N content (kg ha−1). Statistics of cultivars indicated that yield traits, yield, and N can be simulated efficiently for agroecological conditions of Peshawar. Moreover, different N rates and application timings suggested that the application of 140 kg N ha−1 with triple splits timings, i.e., 25% at the sowing, 50% at the tillering, and 25% at the booting stage of the crop, resulted in the maximum yield and N recovery for different commercial wheat varieties. Simulated N losses, according to the model, were highly determined by leaching for experimental conditions where a single N application of 100% or existing double splits timing was applied. The study concluded that 140 kg N ha−1 is most appropriate for wheat crop grown on clay loam soils under a flood irrigation system. However, the N fertilizer has to be given in triple splits of a 1:2:1 ratio at the sowing, tillering, and booting stages of the crop growth.

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The transitional phase of climate change is becoming a threat worldwide. Fluctuations in temperature are frequently observed in the life cycles of field crops. The current study was intended to evaluate heat stress (HS) at sensitive stages on four wheat cultivars’ growth, grain yield, and quality traits during two consecutive seasons. The experiment included four spring wheat cultivars that were exposed to HS durations (i.e., 0, 48, 96 and 144 h) at booting and anthesis stages. Pots were kept in an open-air, and labeled pots were moved to the glasshouse at the respective growth stage. After HS treatments, pots were moved from the glasshouse to the original position in the open air. The results showed that the cultivars differed in yield and grain quality traits, but their collective mean effect was significantly expressed with HS and HS duration (HSd) on the measured traits. Spike length was significantly affected by HS at the anthesis in comparison to those obtained from the control. However, the increase in HSd did not cause a significant effect on spike length compared to other treatments. Spike weight was significantly decreased in plants exposed to HS at booting and anthesis as well as by increasing HSd. In addition, grain weight and numbers were decreased in plants exposed to HS at booting and anthesis stages with a similar pattern by increasing HSd. Moreover, a reduction in amylose content was observed in grains of plants exposed to HS at booting and anthesis stages or when plants as exposed to a longer period of HSd. Nonetheless, amylopectin, wet gluten (WG) and grain N (GN) showed an increase in plants exposed to HS at booting and anthesis stages and/or extending HSd. This study concludes that plants exposed to different HS treatments during the life cycle had lower values for spike length, grains weight, and grains number per spike including amylose content in comparison to those obtained from the control. The decrease was significantly noted in the yield and grain quality of wheat when plants were exposed to HS at the booting stage in comparison to those exposed to HS at anthesis.

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