After tooth extraction, the alveolar ridge undergoes a physiological process of remodelling and disuse atrophy. Socket augmentation (SA) has been shown to preserve alveolar bone volume in order to facilitate implant placement and reduce the need for staged grafting at a later date. Although autogenic grafting has been shown to be the gold standard in bone regeneration, it has significant disadvantages. To prevent post-extraction volumetric alterations and alveolar bone resorption occurring, alternative grafting materials, including xenografts, alloplasts, and allografts, have been used successfully in fresh extraction sites. However, these materials act mostly as bio-scaffolds and require a slower integration period of 6–8 months prior to implant placement. Recently, the use of autologous platelet-rich fibrin (PRF) has been advocated alongside socket augmentation as a method of bio-enhancement of healing of soft and hard tissues. PRF contains platelet-derived growth factors, hormones, and bioactive components such as cytokines that have been shown to promote angiogenesis and tissue regeneration during wound healing. The aim of this article is to review the evidence base for the SA technique Clinical benefits of SA will be discussed with a reference to two cases. Therefore, this narrative review will discuss the post-extraction bone changes, the importance of SA, and the bio-enhancement role of PRF in the management of extraction site defects when the alternative technique of immediate implant placement is not possible or contraindicated.

Dental Implants are a popular treatment option for tooth replacement, with documented long-term success and survival rates of more than 95% over a period of 10 years. However, incorporating dental implantology into an undergraduate dental curriculum has issues associated. Therefore, the aim of this research was to examine and evaluate current undergraduate dental implantology education in the UK, investigate the amount of time allocated to this subject and analyse the barriers that are currently impeding the development of the programmes. An online questionnaire hosted by Online Surveys was designed, piloted, and sent to 16 dental schools providing undergraduate education in the UK. Ethical approval was gained from The University of Salford to conduct the study. Out of the 16 dental schools contacted, eight questionnaire responses were received, hence a response rate of 50% was achieved. The hours dedicated to the implant teaching programme varied from 3 h to 25 h, with a mean average of 11 h. It was identified from the results that no teaching of dental implantology was conducted in year 2; 12% of the schools responded that the subject was taught in year 1, 37% in year 3, 75% in year 4 and 50% in year 5. The methods used to deliver the programme were mainly lecture-based teaching, with only one dental school allowing students to place implants on patients. The main barriers to progression of the programme were financial (75%), followed by time limitations imposed by the curriculum (37%) and liability insurance (37%). However, there appears to be a consensus that further training beyond bachelor’s degree level is required to teach implantology effectively.

Skin has an essential role in preserving homeostasis and in maintaining the safety of the human body from outside environment by playing its role as the largest body part of human. The stratified, categorized and complex arrangement of skin gives a physical protection to the body by maintaining and regulate the transportation of metabolites and water off the body. The injuries that can originate after any chemical or physical trauma can cause impairment of skin barrier and its physiological functions.1 In skin injuries, considerable amount of skin can be lost, and it develops extremely critical to replace injury caused impaired skin. Transplants in order to protect the lots of water from body and to save the body from opportunistic pathogens can replace the impaired skin. Skin grafts can also expedite the wound recovery procedure and support and restore the barrier and can maintain the regulatory functions on the site of wound.2,3 Apart from grafts tissue engineered skin plays an exceptionally beneficial role and in vitro stage for the evaluation of skin permeability and adverse inflammation response. The tissue-engineered skin has several advantages in comparison to animal skin by having the major significance by mimicking the skin physiology and easing the ethical concerns of animal use. Additionally, tissue engineered skin models also give the significant insights into the causes of skin diseases, hence, explicate the pathophysiological mechanisms in order to see the progression, and can help in the treatment of skin disease.4,5 It has been seen that numerous tools have become accessible for the tissue engineering and are adopting different novel approaches and technologies, and amongst these 3D bioprinting offers many significant advantages Since it is possible of dispensing live cells, phase changing hydrogels, insoluble factors and maintaining high cell viability in a desired pattern.6