We undertook a systematic review to assess the efficacy of exposure‐based writing therapies (WTs) for trauma‐exposed adults with subthreshold or clinical levels of posttraumatic stress disorder. Four databases (PsycINFO, Medline, Wiley Online, PILOTS) were searched for randomized controlled trials (RCTs) of exposure‐based WTs. A total of 13 RCTs that reported on results from 17 WT versus control comparisons were included. The primary outcomes were posttraumatic stress symptom severity at posttreatment and/or clinical response. An overall unclear or high risk of bias was identified in 84.6% of studies. In comparison to both waitlist k = 3, Hedges’ g = −0.97, 95% CI [‐1.20, ‐0.73], and placebo writing conditions, k = 9, Hedges’ g = −0.48, 95% CI [‐0.87, ‐0.08], WTs were more beneficial to participants. There was no evidence of a difference between WTs that were longer in duration compared to other psychotherapy, k = 2; pooled OR = 1.42; 95% CI [0.83, 2.43]. These findings indicate that exposure‐based WTs are effective when compared to waitlist and placebo writing control conditions. The evidence needs to be considered in the context of the modest number of studies conducted to date, the high methodological heterogeneity between the studies, and the high or unclear risk of bias across many studies. Further research is needed to increase the evidence base regarding the efficacy of WTs for posttraumatic stress. Future research should also measure the mediators and predictors of outcomes to further develop protocols and understand which variants of WTs work for different populations or individuals.

Background Most studies examining processes of change in psychological therapy for social anxiety disorder (SAD) have analysed data from randomised controlled trials in research settings. Method To assess whether these findings are representative of routine clinical practice, we analysed audit data from two samples of patients who received Cognitive Therapy for SAD (total N = 271). Three process variables (self-focused attention, negative social cognitions, and depressed mood) were examined using multilevel structural equation models. Results Significant indirect effects were observed for all three variables in both samples, with negative social cognitions showing the strongest percent mediation effect. ‘Reversed’ relationships, where social anxiety predicted subsequent process variable scores, were also supported. Conclusion The findings suggest the processes of change in this treatment may be similar between research trials and routine care.

Objective: This review examines the evidence from head-to-head randomised controlled trials addressing whether the efficacy of cognitive-behavioural therapy for anxiety disorders, obsessive-compulsive disorder and post-traumatic stress disorders in adults delivered by computer or online (computer- and Internet-delivered cognitive-behavioural therapy) is not inferior to in-person cognitive-behavioural therapy for reducing levels of symptoms and producing clinically significant gains at post-treatment and at follow-up. A supplementary aim is to examine the evidence for severity as a moderator of the relative efficacy of computer- and Internet-delivered cognitive-behavioural therapy and in-person cognitive-behavioural therapy. Method: PubMed, PsycINFO, Embase and Cochrane database of randomised trials were searched for randomised controlled trials of cognitive-behavioural therapy for these disorders with at least an in-person cognitive-behavioural therapy and Internet or computer cognitive-behavioural therapy arm. Results: A total of 14 randomised controlled trials (9 Internet, 5 computer) of cognitive-behavioural therapy for social anxiety disorder, panic disorder and specific phobia and 3 reports of effect moderators were included. One study showed a low risk of bias when assessed against risk of bias criteria for non-inferiority trials. The remaining studies were assessed as high or unclear risk of bias. One study found that Internet-delivered cognitive-behavioural therapy was superior and non-inferior at post-treatment and follow-up to group in-person cognitive-behavioural therapy for social anxiety disorder. One study of Internet-delivered cognitive-behavioural therapy for panic disorder showed non-inferiority to individual in-person cognitive-behavioural therapy for responder status at post-treatment and one of Internet cognitive-behavioural therapy for panic disorder for symptom severity at follow-up. Other comparisons (22 Internet, 13 computer) and for estimates pooled for Internet cognitive-behavioural therapy for social anxiety disorder, Internet cognitive-behavioural therapy for panic disorder and computer-delivered cognitive-behavioural therapy studies did not support non-inferiority. Evidence of effect moderation by severity and co-morbidity was mixed. Conclusion: There is limited evidence from randomised controlled trials which supports claims that computer- or Internet-delivered cognitive-behavioural therapy for anxiety disorders is not inferior to in-person delivery. Randomised controlled trials properly designed to test non-inferiority are needed before conclusions about the relative benefits of in-person and Internet- and computer-delivered cognitive-behavioural therapy can be made. Prospero: CRD420180961655-6

Adults demonstrate enhanced memory for words encoded as belonging to themselves compared to those belonging to another. Known as the self-reference effect, there is evidence for the effect in children as young as three. Toddlers are efficient in linking novel words to novel objects, but have difficulties retaining multiple word-object associations. The aim here was to investigate the self-reference ownership paradigm on 3-year-old children’s retention of novel words. Following exposure to each of four novel word-object pairings, children were told that objects either belonged to them or another character. Children demonstrated significantly higher immediate retention of self-referenced compared to other-referenced items. Retention was also tested 4 h later and the following morning. Retention for self- and other-referenced words was significantly higher than chance at both delayed time points, but the difference between the self- and other-referenced words was no longer significant. The findings suggest that when it comes to toddlers’ retention of multiple novel words there is an initial memory enhancing effect for self- compared to other-referenced items, but the difference diminishes over time. Children’s looking times during the self-reference presentations were positively associated with retention of self-referenced words 4 h later. Looking times during the other-reference presentations were positively associated with proportional looking at other-referenced items during immediate retention testing. The findings have implications for children’s memory for novel words and future studies could test children’s explicit memories for the ownership manipulation itself and whether the effect is superior to other forms of memory supports such as ostensive naming.

Thompson‐Hollands et al.’s (2020) commentary on our systematic review of exposure‐based writing therapies for subthreshold and clinical posttraumatic stress symptoms (Dawson et al., 2020) emphasizes important questions about the impact of heterogeneity in drawing inferences from evidence reviews. In this reply, we discuss (a) our rationale for undertaking a systematic review that was broad rather than narrow in scope and (b) provide clarifications on how heterogeneity was considered in the meta‐analyses that were conducted. We also strongly agree with Thompson‐Hollands et al.’s recommendation that future research should focus on better understanding the mechanisms by which exposure‐based writing therapies help reduce posttraumatic stress symptoms.