Root hairs are tubular outgrowths that originate from epidermal cells. Exposure of Arabidopsis to cadmium (Cd) and arsenic [arsenite, As(III)] increases root hair density and length. To examine the underlying mechanism, we measured the expression of genes involved in fate determination and morphogenesis of root hairs. Cd and As(III) downregulated TTG1 and GL2 (negative regulators of fate determination) and upregulated GEM (positive regulator), suggesting that root hair fate determination is stimulated by Cd and As(III). Cd and As(III) increased the transcript levels of genes involved in root hair initiation (RHD6 and AXR2) and root hair elongation (AUX1, AXR1, ETR1, and EIN2) except CTR1. DR5::GUS transgenic Arabidopsis showed a higher DR5 expression in the root tip, suggesting that Cd and As(III) increased the auxin content in the root tip. Knockdown of TTG1 in Arabidopsis resulted in increased root hair density and decreased root hair length compared with the control (Col-0) on 1/2 MS media. This phenotype may be attributed to the downregulation of GL2 and CTR1 and upregulation of RHD6. By contrast, gem mutant plants displayed a decrease in root hair density and length with reduced expression of RHD6, AXR2, AUX1, AXR1, ETR1, CTR1, and EIN2. Taken together, our results indicate that fate determination, initiation, and elongation of root hairs are stimulated in response to Cd and As(III) through the modulation of the expression of genes involved in these processes in Arabidopsis.

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Hemoglobin (Hb) proteins are ubiquitous in plants, and non-symbiotic class 1 hemoglobin (Hb1) is involved in various biotic and abiotic stress responses. Here, the expression of the tobacco ( Nicotiana tabacum ) hemoglobin gene NtHb1 in Arabidopsis ( Arabidopsis thaliana ) showed higher cadmium (Cd) tolerance and lower accumulations of Cd, nitric oxide (NO), and reactive oxygen species (ROS) like hydrogen peroxide (H 2 O 2 ). NtHb1 -expressing Arabidopsis exhibited a reduced induction of NO levels in response to Cd, suggesting scavenging of NO by Hb1. In addition, transgenic plants had reduced accumulation of ROS and increased activities of antioxidative enzymes (catalase, superoxide dismutase, and glutathione reductase) in response to Cd. While the expression of the Cd exporters ABC transporter (PDR8) and Ca 2+ /H + exchangers ( CAXs ) was increased, that of the Cd importers iron responsive transporter 1 ( IRT1 ) and P-type 2B Ca 2+ ATPase ( ACA10 ) was reduced in response to Cd. When Col-0 plants were treated with the NO donor sodium nitroprusside (SNP) and H 2 O 2 , the expression pattern of Cd transporters ( PDR8 , CAX3 , IRT1 , and ACA10 ) was reversed, suggesting that NtHb1 expression decreased the Cd level by regulating the expression of Cd transporters via decreased NO and ROS. Correspondingly, NtHb1 -expressing Arabidopsis showed increased Cd export. In summary, the expression of NtHb1 reduces Cd levels by regulating Cd transporter expression via decreased NO and ROS levels in Arabidopsis .

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Bisphenol A (BPA) is a harmful environmental contaminant acting as an endocrine disruptor in animals, but it also affects growth and development in plants. Here, we have elucidated the functional mechanism of root growth inhibition by BPA in Arabidopsis thaliana using mutants, reporter lines and a pharmacological approach. In response to 10 ppm BPA, fresh weight and main root length were reduced, while auxin levels increased. BPA inhibited root growth by reducing root cell length in the elongation zone by suppressing expansin expression and by decreasing the length of the meristem zone by repressing cell division. The inhibition of cell elongation and cell division was attributed to the enhanced accumulation/redistribution of auxin in the elongation zone and meristem zone in response to BPA. Correspondingly, the expressions of most auxin biosynthesis and transporter genes were enhanced in roots by BPA. Taken together, it is assumed that the endocrine disruptor BPA inhibits primary root growth by inhibiting cell elongation and division through auxin accumulation/redistribution in Arabidopsis. This study will contribute to understanding how BPA affects growth and development in plants.