The objective of this study was to understand how people adapt to errors when using a myoelectric control interface. We compared adaptation across 1) non-amputee subjects using joint angle, joint torque, and myoelectric control interfaces, and 2) amputee subjects using myoelectric control interfaces with residual and intact limbs (five total control interface conditions). We measured trial-by-trial adaptation to self-generated errors and random perturbations during a virtual, single degree-of-freedom task with two levels of feedback uncertainty, and evaluated adaptation by fitting a hierarchical Kalman filter model. We have two main results. First, adaptation to random perturbations was similar across all control interfaces, whereas adaptation to self-generated errors differed. These patterns matched predictions of our model, which was fit to each control interface by changing the process noise parameter that represented system variability. Second, in amputee subjects, we found similar adaptation rates and error levels between residual and intact limbs. These results link prosthesis control to broader areas of motor learning and adaptation and provide a useful model of adaptation with myoelectric control. The model of adaptation will help us understand and solve prosthesis control challenges, such as providing additional sensory feedback.

Accurate control of human limbs involves both feedforward and feedback signals. For prosthetic arms, feedforward control is commonly accomplished by recording myoelectric signals from the residual limb to predict the user’s intent, but augmented feedback signals are not explicitly provided in commercial devices. Previous studies have demonstrated inconsistent results when artificial feedback was provided in the presence of vision; some studies showed benefits, while others did not. We hypothesized that negligible benefits in past studies may have been due to artificial feedback with low precision compared to vision, which results in heavy reliance on vision during reaching tasks. Furthermore, we anticipated more reliable benefits from artificial feedback when providing information that vision estimates with high uncertainty (e.g. joint speed). In this study, we test an artificial sensory feedback system providing joint speed information and how it impacts performance and adaptation during a hybrid positional-and-myoelectric ballistic reaching task. We found that overall reaching errors were reduced after perturbed control, but did not significantly improve steady-state reaches. Furthermore, we found that feedback about the joint speed of the myoelectric prosthesis control improved the adaptation rate of biological limb movements, which may have resulted from high prosthesis control noise and strategic overreaching with the positional control and underreaching with the myoelectric control. These results provide insights into the relevant factors influencing the improvements conferred by artificial sensory feedback.

Powered prostheses are controlled using electromyographic (EMG) signals, which may introduce high levels of uncertainty even for simple tasks. According to Bayesian theories, higher uncertainty should influence how the brain adapts motor commands in response to perceived errors. Such adaptation may critically influence how patients interact with their prosthetic devices; however, we do not yet understand adaptation behavior with EMG control. Models of adaptation can offer insights on movement planning and feedback correction, but we first need to establish their validity for EMG control interfaces. Here we created a simplified comparison of prosthesis and able-bodied control by studying adaptation with three control interfaces: joint angle, joint torque, and EMG. Subjects used each of the control interfaces to perform a target-directed task with random visual perturbations. We investigated how control interface and visual uncertainty affected trial-by-trial adaptation. As predicted by Bayesian models, increased errors and decreased visual uncertainty led to faster adaptation. The control interface had no significant effect beyond influencing error sizes. This result suggests that Bayesian models are useful for describing prosthesis control and could facilitate further investigation to characterize the uncertainty faced by prosthesis users. A better understanding of factors affecting movement uncertainty will guide sensory feedback strategies for powered prostheses and clarify what feedback information best improves control.

In this paper we asked the question: if we artificially raise the variability of torque control signals to match that of EMG, do subjects make similar errors and have similar uncertainty about their movements? We answered this question using two experiments in which subjects used three different control signals: torque, torque+noise, and EMG. First, we measured error on a simple target-hitting task in which subjects received visual feedback only at the end of their movements. We found that even when the signal-to-noise ratio was equal across EMG and torque+noise control signals, EMG resulted in larger errors. Second, we quantified uncertainty by measuring the just-noticeable difference of a visual perturbation. We found that for equal errors, EMG resulted in higher movement uncertainty than both torque and torque+noise. The differences suggest that performance and confidence are influenced by more than just the noisiness of the control signal, and suggest that other factors, such as the user's ability to incorporate feedback and develop accurate internal models, also have significant impacts on the performance and confidence of a person's actions. We theorize that users have difficulty distinguishing between random and systematic errors for EMG control, and future work should examine in more detail the types of errors made with EMG control.