We (Marsh & Craven, 1997) have claimed that academic self-concept and achievement are mutually reinforcing, each leading to gains in the other. Baumeister, Campbell, Krueger, and Vohs (2003) have claimed that self-esteem has no benefits beyond seductive pleasure and may even be detrimental to subsequent performance. Integrating these seemingly contradictory conclusions, we distinguish between (a) older, unidimensional perspectives that focus on global self-esteem and underpin the Baumeister et al. review and (b) more recent, multidimensional perspectives that focus on specific components of self-concept and are the basis of our claim. Supporting the construct validity of a multidimensional perspective, studies show that academic achievement is substantially related to academic self-concept, but nearly unrelated to self-esteem. Consistent with this distinction, research based on our reciprocal-effects model (REM) and a recent meta-analysis show that prior academic self-concept (as opposed to self-esteem) and achievement both have positive effects on subsequent self-concept and achievement. We provide an overview of new support for the generality of the REM for young children, cross-cultural research in non-Western countries, health (physical activity), and nonelite (gymnastics) and elite (international swimming championships) sport. We conclude that future reviews elucidating the significant implications of self-concept for theory, policy, and practice need to account for current research supporting the REM and a multidimensional perspective of self-concept.

The big-fish-little-pond effect (BFLPE) predicts that equally able students have lower academic self-concepts (ASCs) when attending schools where the average ability levels of classmates is high, and higher ASCs when attending schools where the schoolaverage ability is low. BFLPE findings are remarkably robust, generalizing over a wide variety of different individual student and contextual level characteristics, settings, countries, long-term follow-ups, and research designs. Because of the importance of ASC in predicting future achievement, coursework selection, and educational attainment, the results have important implications for the way in which schools are organized (e.g., tracking, ability grouping, academically selective schools, and gifted education programs). In response to Dai and Rinn (Educ. Psychol. Rev., 2008), we summarize the theoretical model underlying the BFLPE, minimal conditions for testing the BFLPE, support for its robust generalizability, its relation to social comparison theory, and recent research extending previous implications, demonstrating that the BFLPE stands up to scrutiny. Educ Psychol Rev (2008) 20:319-350 DOI 10.1007 Quotations (associated page numbers) to the Dai and Rinn (2008) article are based on a prepublication version of the article available to the authors of this article that may have changed during the final preparation for publication.The authors would also like to express thanks to David Dai and Anne Rinn for their encouragement and assistance to us in preparation of our article, whilst still acknowledging that they might not agree will all the views expressed here. Keywords Big-fish-little-pond-effect . Social comparison theory . Ability grouping . Academic self-concept In its simplest form, the big-fish-little-pond effect (BFLPE) predicts that students have lower academic self-concepts (ASC) when attending schools where the average ability levels of other students is high compared to equally able students attending schools where the school-average ability is low. Findings support the BFLPE and are remarkably robust, generalizing over a wide variety of different individual student and contextual level characteristics, settings, countries, longterm followups, and research designs. The results also have important policy implications for the ways in which schools are organized (e.g., ability grouping, tracking, selective schools, gifted education programs, etc.). An Advance OrganizerThe Dai and Rinn (2008) critique of the BFLPE is reminiscent in many ways of the Dai (2004) comment on a cross-cultural study on the BFLPE by Marsh and Hau (2003). To differing extents, both critiques by Dai (2004) and by Dai and Rinn (2008) suggested that: the BFLPE might be a short-term, ephemeral effect; noted situations in which there might be positive effects of school-average ability on ASC that is claimed to be inconsistent with BFLPE predictions; argued that there might be a number of individual student or contextual characteristics that moderate the BFLPE; contrasted BF...

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A new, adaptive procedure for assessing multiple dimensions of self-concept for children younger than 8 years and related theoretical issues were examined. For older children the multidimensional, hierarchical structure of self-concept is now well established. For younger children, however, a paucity of research and appropriate instruments has led to the belief that self-concept is poorly differentiated and that a general self-concept may not even exist. In individual interviews, 501 students in kindergarten, 1st grade, and 2nd grade completed the Self Description Questionnaire I (SDQ-I). At each grade level, confirmatory factor analyses identified all 8 SDQ-I scales, including General self-concept. With increasing age the fit of the 8-factor model improved, the size of correlations among the factors decreased, and self-concept became more differentiated. Appropriately measured self-concepts are better differentiated by young children than previously assumed.

Theoretical models suggest that 4- and 5-year-old children should be able to differentiate between multiple dimensions of self-concept, but empirical support is limited. A new 38-item Self Description Questionnaire for Preschoolers (SDQP) that measures 6 self-concept factors (Physical, Appearance, Peers, Parents, Verbal, and Math) was developed and tested. Through an individual-interview procedure, young children (4.0-5.6 years) completed the SDQP and achievement tests. The self-concept scales were reliable (.75-.89), first-order and higher order confirmatory factor analysis models fit the data, and factor correlations were mostly moderate (-.03-.73; Mdn = .29). Achievement test scores correlated modestly with academic self-concept factors (rs = .15-40) but were nonsignificantly or significantly negatively related to nonacademic self-concepts. The results contribute to the critical debate about the validity of self-reports for preschool children, who distinguished between multiple dimensions of self-concept at an even younger age than suggested by previous self-concept research.