Monocyte chemoattracant-1 (MCP-1) stimulates leukocyte chemotaxis to inflammatory sites, such as rheumatoid arthritis, atherosclerosis, and asthma, by use of the MCP-1 receptor, CCR2, a member of the G-proteincoupled seven-transmembrane receptor superfamily. These studies identified a family of antagonists, spiropiperidines. One of the more potent compounds blocks MCP-1 binding to CCR2 with a K d of 60 nM, but it is unable to block binding to CXCR1, CCR1, or CCR3. These compounds were effective inhibitors of chemotaxis toward MCP-1 but were very poor inhibitors of CCR1-mediated chemotaxis. The compounds are effective blockers of MCP-1-driven inhibition of adenylate cyclase and MCP-1-and MCP-3-driven cytosolic calcium influx; the compounds are not agonists for these pathways. We showed that glutamate 291 (Glu 291 ) of CCR2 is a critical residue for high affinity binding and that this residue contributes little to MCP-1 binding to CCR2. The basic nitrogen present in the spiropiperidine compounds may be the interaction partner for Glu 291 , because the basicity of this nitrogen was essential for affinity; furthermore, a different class of antagonists, a class that does not have a basic nitrogen (2-carboxypyrroles), were not affected by mutations of Glu 291 . In addition to the CCR2 receptor, spiropiperidine compounds have affinity for several biogenic amine receptors. Receptor models indicate that the acidic residue, Glu 291, from transmembrane-7 of CCR2 is in a position similar to the acidic residue contributed from transmembrane-3 of biogenic amine receptors, which may account for the shared affinity of spiropiperidines for these two receptor classes. The models suggest that the acid-base pair, Glu 291 to piperidine nitrogen, anchors the spiropiperidine compound within the transmembrane ovoid bundle. This binding site may overlap with the space required by MCP-1 during binding and signaling; thus the small molecule ligands act as antagonists. An acidic residue in transmembrane region 7 is found in most chemokine receptors and is rare in other serpentine receptors. The model of the binding site may suggest ways to make new small molecule chemokine receptor antagonists, and it may rationalize the design of more potent and selective antagonists.Chemokines are a large family of small proteins that mediate attraction of leukocytes to inflammatory sites (1-3). The chemokine family shares a common pattern of disulfide bonds and a common overall tertiary structure as shown in solution or crystallographically determined structures (4 -6). The chemokine family is divided into four subfamilies based on the number of residues between the first and second cysteine. Among the chemokines, the CC chemokine monocyte chemoattracant-1 (MCP-1) 1 has received a great deal of attention because of its involvement in diseases. MCP-1 expression is elevated in the inflamed synovium of rheumatoid arthritis, and its expression is reduced by anti-arthritic drugs (7,8). Other work has shown that MCP-1 is elevated in asthmatic patients; the am...

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The phorbol esters (e.g., la, Scheme I) have played a unique role in the evolution of our understanding of multistage carcinogenesis and have been found recently to function as high-affinity

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1. A patch-clamp set-up was optimized for low noise and high time resolution. An Axoclamp 200B amplifier was modified to incorporate a Teflon connector to the electrode. An electrode puller was equipped with a hydrogen-oxygen burner to produce quartz-glass pipettes with optimally 0·2 ìm openings and 20 MÙ resistance. 2. The r.m.s. (root mean square) noise of sealed pipettes in the bath ranged from 3·6 fA with 100 Hz filter cut-off to 1·5 pA with 61 kHz filter cut-off. At these extremes currents of 17 fA and more than 3 ms, or 9 pA and more than 6 ìs could be resolved with a negligible error rate. 3. The system was tested on mouse myoballs, recording 9-10 pA single channel currents oncell at −200 mV polarization which were elicited by 0·1-5000 ìÒ acetylcholine (ACh).