Focusing events have been widely referenced in policy studies literature as important drivers of major policy change. In multiple streams theory, punctuated equilibrium theory, and the advocacy coalition framework, they play a prominent role in explaining how major changes occur. Nearly all existing research, however, has focused on the very large and catastrophic events that catapult otherwise obscure issues onto the agenda, to the neglect of focusing events that may perform other functions. This article examines one such event: the Master Settlement Agreement (MSA) between the tobacco industry and the states signed in 1998. I observe that although the MSA focused substantial attention on the topic of tobacco regulation, produced major policy change, and shifted the policy image of the domain, it was not a typical focusing event. Drawing from the tipping point theories of Sociology and Malcolm Gladwell's The Tipping Point, I expand a theoretical distinction articulated by Baumgartner and Jones between "triggering" events and "consolidating" or "tipping" events to resolve this discrepancy.At first glance, the concept of a focusing event is intuitive, even simple. The connections between the Great Depression and the New Deal, for instance, or between 9/11 and the War on Terror are obvious to even the casual observer. Indeed, this type of large-scale, dramatic event is intuitively recognized as a potential catalyst for major policy action. These events have an inherent capacity to shock us and shake us from the complacency of our everyday lives. They cause us to think about topics we had previously ignored or considered settled. They highlight weaknesses in the fabric of society that were previously obscure.In the terminology of social science, these events focus the attention of citizens and lawmakers for a time-attention that would otherwise be scattered widely across the political spectrum-on a single policy problem. Sometimes, as evinced by the rapid passage of the USA Patriot Act following 9/11, they can even prompt a consensus on a single solution where none was possible before. Yet as intuitive as the relationship between focusing events and attention is, and as important as these events often are for public policy, there has been surprisingly little systematic study of their characteristics in the scholarly literature.

A host of research has been produced in the decade since Baumgartner and Jones' theory of punctuated equilibrium first drew attention to the dynamics of policy change over time. Much of this research follows a topic across time, highlighting the shift from negative to positive feedback as challengers push an issue from subsystem to institutional level. Far less attention has been paid to the periods between major punctuations, neglecting key questions about whether incremental periods reflect an absence of challengers or the successful defense of established subsystem interests.This research is a comparison of policy change across two segments of environmental policy. The breakup of the timber subsystem was a clear victory for environmentalists, yet these same actors have been largely unsuccessful at dislodging established grazing interests. These findings highlight the strategic value of venue shifting for bypassing entrenched interests and illustrate the potential for successful challenges to occur in judicial venues.

As the United States struggles with national solutions to address climate change, state and local governments have become leaders in both mitigation and adaptation policy. Although a significant and growing body of research targets these policies, most studies have assumed common factors motivating both adaptation and mitigation policy adoption. There remains a need for more research on cities of all sizes, their adoption of specific local policies, the factors motivating those choices, and whether the influences for mitigation differ from those that motivate adaptation.The paper uses data from a new survey of over 200 local governments in eleven states of the Great Plains region, including measures distinguishing between mitigation and adaptation policies. These data are employed to test the relative influence of factors from three areas: the policy environment, the attitudes of governmental actors, and community atmosphere, in explaining observed variation in the adoption of climate change policies.

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This paper discusses current opportunities for universities to partner with local governments and NGOs to support local level adaptation to climate change and a proposed ten-stage model which delineates the key stages of a collaborative climate change adaptation process. We offer findings and recommendations based upon two case studies of recently completed regional climate change adaptation projects in New Hampshire and Minnesota. These recommendations are also informed by previous research on effective community-based natural resource management programs and the role of building local community capital to support ongoing adaptation efforts. Key findings include the identification of relevant and significant roles for higher education that are supportive of local climate change adaptation efforts. These roles include, but are not limited to, conducting applied climate change research, assessment of current conditions and the risks from severe weather events, translating science for lay audience and local decision makers, disseminating local-scaled climate information, providing technical support for multisector collaborative planning efforts, and evaluating the effectiveness of local adaptation actions. Both case study sites found that the involvement of higher education in local climate change adaption efforts raises the legitimacy of the process.