Congestion in infrastructure capacity is a barrier to entry to markets under liberalization. The Spanish rail infrastructure manager, ADIF AV, has implemented an innovative model to reduce such a barrier. ADIF AV optimized capacity by defining the schedule with the most efficient use of tracks, building packages with such track capacity and putting them for tender. Three railway undertakings, the incumbent and two newcomers, will compete in the high-speed market, increasing at least 55% the number of services. This model can be exported to other countries reforming the rail sector.

Liberalization of long-distance railway passenger services in the European Union was scheduled for December 2020. The Spanish infrastructure manager decided that the Spanish high-speed network was congested so an optimization plan would be needed to accommodate newcomers and ensure an 'orderly' transition to competition. The infrastructure manager defined a full schedule for cadenced train paths in the three main high-speed corridors. The network capacity was divided into three asymmetric packages combining all three corridors (of 60%, 30% and 10% of the capacity). The infrastructure manager put out the three packages of capacity rights for tender (for a 10-year period), with the assignment criterion being greater use of the capacity. As a result, three undertakings will compete for the provision of highspeed services in Spain. They have committed to a sharp increase in supply in all three corridors, assuming the risk of demand. Fierce competition is expected.

The presence of women in the labor market is increasing gradually, but this has not prevented the fact that they find more problems in their careers than men. This area of gender inequality in the labor market poses new challenges for gender equality policies, aimed at ensuring full labor market participation of women as well as equal opportunities for the development of their professional careers. Discrimination against women is a "glass ceiling" for professional development, promotion, and occupation of the highest positions at the companies. This article covers the main explanatory theories of discrimination suffered by women in the labor market from a microeconomic point of view.RESUMENLa presencia de las mujeres en el mundo laboral va aumentando progresivamente; sin embargo, esta situación no ha evitado que las mujeres se encuentren con más problemas en su promoción profesional que los hombres. Este ámbito de desigualdad por razón de sexo en el mercado laboral plantea nuevos retos a las políticas de igualdad, tendentes a garantizar la plena incorporación al mercado laboral de las mujeres y asimismo a establecer los cambios que posibiliten el ascenso profesional de las mismas en igualdad de condiciones con los hombres. La discriminación que sufren las mujeres supone un "techo de cristal" al desarrollo profesional y a la promoción y ocupación de los puestos más altos de las organizaciones en las que trabajan. En el presente artículo se recogen las principales teorías explicativas de la discriminación que sufre la mujer en el mercado de trabajo desde un punto de vista fundamentalmente microeconómico.