Neuropathic pain (NeP), generated by disorders of the peripheral and central nervous system, can be particularly severe and disabling. Prevalence estimates indicate that 2% to 3% of the population in the developed world suffer from NeP, which suggests that up to one million Canadians have this disabling condition. Evidence-based guidelines for the pharmacological management of NeP are therefore urgently needed. Randomized, controlled trials, systematic reviews and existing guidelines focusing on the pharmacological management of NeP were evaluated at a consensus meeting. Medications are recommended in the guidelines if their analgesic efficacy was supported by at least one methodologically sound, randomized, controlled trial showing significant benefit relative to placebo or another relevant control group. Recommendations for treatment are based on degree of evidence of analgesic efficacy, safety, ease of use and cost-effectiveness. Analgesic agents recommended for first-line treatments are certain antidepressants (tricyclics) and anticonvulsants (gabapentin and pregabalin). Second-line treatments recommended are serotonin noradrenaline reuptake inhibitors and topical lidocaine. Tramadol and controlled-release opioid analgesics are recommended as third-line treatments for moderate to severe pain. Recommended fourth-line treatments include cannabinoids, methadone and anticonvulsants with lesser evidence of efficacy, such as lamotrigine, topiramate and valproic acid. Treatment must be individualized for each patient based on efficacy, side-effect profile and drug accessibility, including cost. Further studies are required to examine head-to-head comparisons among analgesics, combinations of analgesics, long-term outcomes, and treatment of pediatric and central NeP.

A consensus is developing that there is a high prevalence of chronic pain within adult populations living in industrialized nations. Recent studies have formulated survey questions carefully and have used large samples. Unfortunately, a substantial proportion of Canadian adults continue to live with chronic pain that is longstanding and severe.

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1. Addiction can occur with the repeated exposure of a biogenetically predisposed person to an addictive substance or behaviour. 2. In the patient with pain on opioid therapy, use the '4 Cs' to diagnose addiction. 3. Screening and risk stratification of all patients considered for opioid therapy is a key element of 'universal precautions' in pain management. 4. There are a number of established and new screening tools including the CAGE, Opioid Risk Tool and Screener and Opioid Assessment for Patients with Pain, which can be utilized in the office setting. 5. There are a number of potential ambiguous drug-related behaviours that should trigger a re-evaluation by the clinician. 6. Treating the higher-risk patient with opioids requires more assessment, more structure and more monitoring. Written opioid prescribing agreements and urine drug testing can be helpful strategies. 7. Essential documentation includes the '6As': Analgesia, Activity, Adverse effects, Ambiguous drug behaviours, Affect and Adequate prescription information.

Findings from the present study could have implications for clinicians considering the use of cannabinoids for the management of patients with medical conditions. Although results indicated that the majority of patients included in this study did not reach cutoff scores on the three main PPCBU outcomes, our findings suggest that PPCBU should be routinely assessed and monitored over the course of cannabinoid therapy, particularly among patients with a history of psychiatric or substance use problems.