Sea ice is an important and complex component of the Earth system and is considered a sensitive indicator of climate change. The seasonal sea ice cycle regulates the exchange of heat and salinity, altering the energy balance between high and low latitudes as well as the ocean and atmospheric circulation. The accurate representation of Antarctic sea ice has been considered a hot topic in the climate modelling community and lacks conclusive answers. In this paper, we evaluated the ability of 11 climate models from Coupled Model Intercomparison Project Phase 5 (CMIP5) and Phase 6 (CMIP6) to simulate the sea ice seasonal cycle in Antarctica in terms of area (SIA) and concentration (SIC), as well as the improvements in the most recent models' version, submitted to CMIP6. The results indicated that all models are able to accurately capture the seasonal cycle of the Antarctic SIA, with the minimum (maximum) occurring in February (September). In the Weddell Sea, Amundsen Sea, Bellingshausen Sea, and the Ross Sea, the simulated sea ice concentration revealed a large and systematic bias in February when compared to observations. In September, a large and systematic bias was found nearby the Southern Ocean's northern limit in the Polar Front. Several CMIP6 models exhibited slight improvements on the SIA and SIC estimate over the previous version (CMIP5). All models indicated a significant sea ice loss in the coming years as a response to CO2 forcing. Despite the advancements in the sea ice representation, our findings show that the models are still unable to accurately represent the regional sea ice changes

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Interactions between the upper ocean and air-ice-ocean fluxes in the Southern Ocean play a critical role in global climate by impacting the overturning circulation and oceanic heat and carbon uptake. Remote and challenging conditions have led to sparse observational coverage, while ongoing field programmes often fail to collect sufficient information in the right place or at the time-space scales required to constrain the variability occurring in the coupled ocean-atmosphere system. Only within the last 10 years have we been able to directly observe and assess the role of the fine-scale ocean and rapidly evolving atmospheric marine boundary layer on the upper limb of the Southern Ocean's overturning circulation. This review summarizes advances in mechanistic understanding, arising in part from observational programmes using autonomous platforms, of the fine-scale processes (1–100 km, hours-seasons) influencing the Southern Ocean mixed layer and its variability. We also review progress in observing the ocean interior connections and the coupled interactions between the ocean, atmosphere and cryosphere that moderate air-sea fluxes of heat and carbon. Most examples provided are for the ice-free Southern Ocean, while major challenges remain for observing the ice-covered ocean. We attempt to elucidate contemporary research gaps and ongoing/future efforts needed to address them. This article is part of a discussion meeting issue 'Heat and carbon uptake in the Southern Ocean: the state of the art and future priorities'.

RESUMOEste trabalho apresenta um estudo sobre a variabilidade dos campos de anomalia da temperatura da superfície do mar (ATSM), obtidos através imagens de satélites em regiões sob a influência dos diferentes regimes oceanográficos e/ou biofísicos no Oceano Atlântico Sudoeste (ATS). Para tanto, séries temporais de ATSM de 1985 a 2006 foram investigadas em nove sub-áreas no ATS, divididas nos domínios subtropical, intermediário e subantártico. Análise espectral aplicada às séries de ATSM revelou ciclos no período interanual entre 1,6 e 3,7 anos. Análise de correlação cruzada foi usada para estabelecer a relação entre os ciclos presentes na ATSM e os eventos do fenômeno El Niño Oscilação Sul (ENOS), representados aqui a partir do Índice Multivariado do ENOS (MEI). Os resultados evidenciam uma correlação estatisticamente significante, defasada no tempo, entre o ENOS e anomalias termais no ATS, porém sem uma associação direta entre os episódios quentes (frios) de El Niño (La Niña) e ATSMs positivas (negativas). Dentre as diversas áreas de estudo, a correlação é máxima sobre a região da Confluência Brasil-Malvinas (-0,78), com defasagem de tempo de 9 meses após a La Niña de maio de 1988 a maio de 1989. Palavras-Chave: anomalia da temperatura da superfície do mar, El Niño -Oscilação Sul, Oceano Atlântico Sudoeste, províncias biofísicas ABSTRACT: SEA SURFACE TEMPERATURE ANOMALY VARIABILITY IN THE SOUTHWESTERN ATLANTIC OCEAN AND ITS RELATIONSHIP WITH THE EL NIÑO -SOUTHERN OSCILLATIONThis work presents a study on the variability of satellite-derived sea surface temperature anomaly (SSTA) fields in regions under the influence of different oceanographic and/or biophysical patterns in the South-western Atlantic Ocean (SWA). In order to accomplish that, time series of SSTA from 1985 to 2006 were investigated over nine sub-areas in the SWA, divided into the subtropical, intermediate and sub Antarctic domains. Spectral analysis applied to the SSTA time series reveled cycles in the interannual period between 1.6 and 3.7 years. Cross correlation analysis was used aiming to establish the relation between the cycles present in the SSTA and the El Niño -Southern Oscillation (ENSO) events, represented here by the Multivariate ENSO Index (MEI). The results show a statistically significant, lagged in time, correlation between the ENSO and thermal anomalies in the SWA, however there is no direct association between the warm (cold) El Niño (La Niña) episodes with positive (negative) SSTAs. Among all distinct study areas, the maximum correlation occurs in the Brazil-Malvinas Confluence region (-0,78), with a time lag of 9 months after the La Niña of

Resumo A região sul do Brasil é marcada, durante o inverno, pela presença de uma frente oceanográfica entre a Corrente do Brasil (CB) e a Corrente Costeira do Brasil (CCB). A frente oceanográfica CB/CCB imprime intensos Abstract The southern coast of Brazil is marked during winter by the presence of an oceanographic front between the Brazil Current (BC) and the Brazilian Coastal Current (BCC). The BC/BCC oceanographic front imprints intense thermal gradients between the cold (BCC) waters of the continental shelf and the warm (BC) waters of the deep ocean. This work analyses, for the first time in the known