The integration of nanotechnology into three-dimensional printing (3DP) offers huge potential and opportunities for the manufacturing of 3D engineered materials exhibiting optimized properties and multifunctionality. The literature relating to different 3DP techniques used to fabricate 3D structures at the macro- and microscale made of nanocomposite materials is reviewed here. The current state-of-the-art fabrication methods, their main characteristics (e.g., resolutions, advantages, limitations), the process parameters, and materials requirements are discussed. A comprehensive review is carried out on the use of metal- and carbon-based nanomaterials incorporated into polymers or hydrogels for the manufacturing of 3D structures, mostly at the microscale, using different 3D-printing techniques. Several methods, including but not limited to micro-stereolithography, extrusion-based direct-write technologies, inkjet-printing techniques, and popular powder-bed technology, are discussed. Various examples of 3D nanocomposite macro- and microstructures manufactured using different 3D-printing technologies for a wide range of domains such as microelectromechanical systems (MEMS), lab-on-a-chip, microfluidics, engineered materials and composites, microelectronics, tissue engineering, and biosystems are reviewed. Parallel advances on materials and techniques are still required in order to employ the full potential of 3D printing of multifunctional nanocomposites.

Recent advances in multi-material 3D and 4D printing (time as the fourth dimension) show that the technology has the potential to extend the design space beyond complex geometries. The potential of these additive manufacturing (AM) technologies allows for functional inclusion in a low-cost single-step manufacturing process. Different composite materials and various AM technologies can be used and combined to create customized multi-functional objects to suit many needs. In this work, several types of 3D and 4D printing technologies are compared and the advantages and disadvantages of each technology are discussed. The various features and applications of 3D and 4D printing technologies used in the fabrication of multi-material objects are reviewed. Finally, new avenues for the development of multi-material 3D and 4D printed objects are proposed, which reflect the current deficiencies and future opportunities for inclusion by AM.

Three-dimensional (3D) printing is a fabrication method that enables creation of structures from digital models. Among the different structures fabricated by 3D printing methods, helical microstructures attracted the attention of the researchers due to their potential in different fields such as MEMS, lab-on-a-chip systems, microelectronics and telecommunications. Here we review different types of 3D printing methods capable of fabricating 3D freeform helical microstructures. The techniques including two more common microfabrication methods (i.e., focused ion beam chemical vapour deposition and microstereolithography) and also five methods based on computer-controlled robotic direct deposition of ink filament (i.e., fused deposition modeling, meniscus-confined electrodeposition, conformal printing on a rotating mandrel, UV-assisted and solvent-cast 3D printings) and their advantages and disadvantages regarding their utilization for the fabrication of helical microstructures are discussed. Focused ion beam chemical vapour deposition and microstereolithography techniques enable the fabrication of very precise shapes with a resolution down to ∼100 nm. However, these techniques may have material constraints (e.g., low viscosity) and/or may need special process conditions (e.g., vacuum chamber) and expensive equipment. The five other techniques based on robotic extrusion of materials through a nozzle are relatively cost-effective, however show lower resolution and less precise features. The popular fused deposition modeling method offers a wide variety of printable materials but the helical microstructures manufactured featured a less precise geometry compared to the other printing methods discussed in this review. The UV-assisted and the solvent-cast 3D printing methods both demonstrated high performance for the printing of 3D freeform structures such as the helix shape. However, the compatible materials used in these methods were limited to UV-curable polymers and polylactic acid (PLA), respectively. Meniscus-confined electrodeposition is a flexible, low cost technique that is capable of fabricating 3D structures both in nano- and microscales including freeform helical microstructures (down to few microns) under room conditions using metals. However, the metals suitable for this technique are limited to those that can be electrochemically deposited with the use of an electrolyte solution. The highest precision on the helix geometry was achieved using the conformal printing on a rotating mandrel. This method offers the lowest shape deformation after printing but requires more tools (e.g., mandrel, motor) and the printed structure must be separated from the mandrel. Helical microstructures made of multifunctional materials (e.g., carbon nanotube nanocomposites, metallic coated polymer template) were used in different technological applications such as strain/load sensors, cell separators and micro-antennas. These innovative 3D microsystems exploiting the unique helix shape demonstrated their potential for better perfo...

This paper deals with the design and microfabrication of two three-dimensional (3D) freestanding patterned strain sensors made of single-walled carbon nanotube (SWCNT) nanocomposites with the ultraviolet-assisted direct-write (UV-DW) technique. The first sensor consisted of three nanocomposite microfibers suspended between two rectangular epoxy pads. The flexibility of the UV-DW technique enables the sensor and its housing to be manufactured in one monolithic structure. The second sensor was composed of a nanocomposite network consisting of four parallel microsprings, which demonstrates the high capability of the technique when compared to conventional photolithographic technologies. The performances of the sensors were assessed under tension and compression, respectively. The sensors' sensitivities were evaluated by correlating their measured resistivities to the applied displacements/strains. Electrical conductivity measurements revealed that the manufactured sensors are highly sensitive to small mechanical disturbances, especially for lower nanotube loadings when compared to traditional metallic or nanocomposite films. The present manufacturing method offers a new perspective for manufacturing highly sensitive 3D freestanding microstructured sensors.

The ultraviolet-assisted 3D printing (UV-3DP) was used to manufacture photopolymer-based microdevices with 3D self-supported and freeform features. The UV-3DP technique consists of the robotized deposition of extruded filaments, which are rapidly photopolymerized under UV illumination during the deposition process. This paper systematically studies the processing parameters of the UV-3DP technique using two photocurable polymers and their associated nanocomposite materials. The main processing parameters including materials' rheological behavior, deposition speed and extrusion pressure, and UV illumination conditions were thoroughly investigated. A processing map was then defined in order to help choosing the proper parameters for the UV-3D printing of microstructures with various geometries. Compared to self-supported features, the accurate fabrication of 3D freeform structures was found to take place in a narrower processing region since a higher rigidity of the extruded filament was required for structural stability. Finally, various 3D self-supported and freeform microstructures with high potential in micro electromechanical systems, micro-systems and organic electronics were fabricated to show the capability of the technique.