The first theoretical estimate of the shear strength of a perfect crystal was given by Frenkel [Z. Phys. 37, 572 (1926)10.1007/BF01397292]. By assuming that two rigid atomic rows in the crystal would move over each other along a slip plane, he derived the ultimate shear strength to be about one-tenth of the shear modulus. Here we present a theoretical study showing that catastrophic failure of viscoelastic materials may occur below Frenkel's ultimate limit as a result of thermal runaway. The thermal runaway failure mechanism exhibits progressive localization of the strain and temperature profiles in space, thereby producing a narrow region of highly deformed material, i.e., a shear band. We calculate the maximum shear strength sigma_{c} of materials and then demonstrate the relevance of this new concept for material failure known to occur at scales ranging from nanometers to kilometers.

Within the theory of general relativity gravitational phenomena are usually attributed to the curvature of four-dimensional spacetime. In this context we are often confronted with the question of how the concept of ordinary physical three-dimensional space fits into this picture. In this work we present a simple and intuitive model of space for both the Schwarzschild spacetime and the de Sitter spacetime in which physical space is defined as a specified set of freely moving reference particles. Using a combination of orthonormal basis fields and the usual formalism in a coordinate basis we calculate the physical velocity field of these reference particles. Thus we obtain a vivid description of space in which space behaves like a river flowing radially toward the singularity in the Schwarzschild spacetime and radially toward infinity in the de Sitter spacetime. We also consider the effect of the river of space upon light rays and material particles and show that the river model of space provides an intuitive explanation for the behavior of light and particles at and beyond the event horizons associated with these spacetimes.

Recently Abramowicz and Bajtlik [ArXiv: 0905.2428 (2009)] have studied the twin paradox in Schwarzschild spacetime. Considering circular motion they showed that the twin with a nonvanishing 4-acceleration is older than his brother at the reunion and argued that in spaces that are asymptotically Minkowskian there exists an absolute standard of rest determining which twin is oldest at the reunion. Here we show that with vertical motion in Schwarzschild spacetime the result is opposite: The twin with a non-vanishing 4-acceleration is younger. We also deduce the existence of a new relativistic time effect, that there is either a time dilation or an increased rate of time associated with a clock moving in a rotating frame. This is in fact a first order effect in the velocity of the clock, and must be taken into account if the situation presented by Abramowicz and Bajtlik is described from the rotating rest frame of one of the twins. Our analysis shows that this effect has a Machian character since the rotating state of a frame depends upon the motion of the cosmic matter due to the inertial dragging it causes. We argue that a consistent formulation and resolution of the twin paradox makes use of the general principle of relativity and requires the introduction of an extended model of the Minkowski spacetime. In the extended model Minkowski spacetime is supplied with a cosmic shell of matter with radius equal to its own Schwarzschild radius, so that there is perfect inertial dragging inside the shell. * Electronic address: Oyvind.Gron@iu.hio.no

We calculate the temperature and magnetic field distributions in a bulk superconductor during the process of pulsed-field magnetic activation. The calculations are based on the heat diffusion equation with account of the heat produced by flux motion, and the critical state model with temperature dependent critical current density. For a given activation time the total amount of trapped flux Φ is maximum for an optimal value Bopt of the maximal applied field. We analyze how Bopt and Φ depend on the material parameters and the field ramp rate.

Thermal runaway instability induced by material softening due to shear heating represents a potential mechanism for mechanical failure of viscoelastic solids. In this work we present a model based on a continuum formulation of a viscoelastic material with Arrhenius dependence of viscosity on temperature, and investigate the behavior of the thermal runaway phenomenon by analytical and numerical methods. Approximate analytical descriptions of the problem reveal that onset of thermal runaway instability is controlled by only two dimensionless combinations of physical parameters. Numerical simulations of the model independently verify these analytical results and allow a quantitative examination of the complete time evolutions of the shear stress and the spatial distributions of temperature and displacement during runaway instability. Thus we find that thermal runaway processes may well develop under nonadiabatic conditions. Moreover, nonadiabaticity of the unstable runaway mode leads to continuous and extreme localization of the strain and temperature profiles in space, demonstrating that the thermal runaway process can cause shear banding. Examples of time evolutions of the spatial distribution of the shear displacement between the interior of the shear band and the essentially nondeforming material outside are presented. Finally, a simple relation between evolution of shear stress, displacement, shear-band width and temperature rise during runaway instability is given.