According to our study, based on interviews with households in a residential area in Sweden, uncertainty is a cultural barrier to improved recycling. Four causes of uncertainty are identified. Firstly, professional categories not matching cultural categories-people easily discriminate between certain categories (e.g., materials such as plastic and paper) but not between others (e.g., packaging and "non-packaging"). Thus a frequent cause of uncertainty is that the basic categories of the waste recycling system do not coincide with the basic categories used in everyday life. Challenged habits-source separation in everyday life is habitual, but when a habit is challenged, by a particular element or feature of the waste system, uncertainty can arise. Lacking fractions-some kinds of items cannot be left for recycling and this makes waste collection incomplete from the user's point of view and in turn lowers the credibility of the system. Missing or contradictory rules of thumb-the above causes seem to be particularly relevant if no motivating principle or rule of thumb (within the context of use) is successfully conveyed to the user. This paper discusses how reducing uncertainty can improve recycling.
Zusammenfassung Der Befall junger Fichten mit Gallen von Sacchiphantes abietis (L.) steht, im statistischen Mittel, in gewissen Beziehungen zum Austreibetyp der Pflanzen. Den höchsten Besatz zeigten im allgemeinen die Mittel‐ oder Mittelfrüh‐treiber; die extremen Spättreiber waren durchweg am schwächsten besiedelt. Die Befalls‐Einzelwerte ordnen sich innerhalb jeder Austreibeklasse annähernd nach der negativen Binomialverteilung und streuen ungemein stark. Das Befallsmaximum kann von Ort zu Ort und von Jahr zu Jahr auf jeweils anderen Austreibetypen liegen; irgendwelche Regeln sind nicht erkennbar. Spezielle Beobachtungen ließen eine wenn auch lockere Synchronisation zwischen dem Austreiben der Knospen und der Entwicklung der Pseudofundatrices und ihrer Nachkommenschaft erkennen. Abweichungen von dieser Synchronisation scheinen die Entwicklung der Familien und die Bildung der Gallen nicht zu beeinträchtigen. Verantwortlich für die aufgezeigten Zusammenhange ist anscheinend die phänologische Koinzidenz (oder Inkoinzidenz) zwischen dem Austreiben der Knospen, der (mehr oder weniger synchronen) Entwicklung der Laus und dem Auftreten von Räubern (Coccinelliden, Dipterenlarven). Das Gesamtbild hängt dann vom Spektrum und von der spezifischen Phänologie der Räuber ab. Verschiebungen des Befallsmaximums von einem Jahr zum anderen sind keine Folgen dichteabhängiger Kompensationserscheinungen, sondern Folgen wechselnder ”Determination„. Wahrscheinlich existieren noch andere, möglicherweise rein physiologische Ursachen der Unterschiede des Sacchiphantes‐Befalls. Summary The degree of Sacchiphantes‐infestation of a young spruce tree stands, in its statistical mean, in certain relations to the phenological type of the plant. In general, those spruces were most heavily infested which opened their buds in an intermediate range of the whole opening period (symbols 2 or 3). In the majority of observations, extremely late budding plants (symbol 0) wore only few or no galls. Within each phenological class, the single infestation values follow, approximately, the negative binomial distribution and vary over a wide range. At different localities and in different years, the infestation maximum can turn upon different phenological types, without any rule being perceivable. Special observations revealed a loose synchronization between the opening of the buds and the development of the pseudofundatrices and their offspring. Deviations from this synchronization, however, seemed not to affect reproduction and gall formation. Responsible for the demonstrated phenomena appears to be the phenological coincidence (or incoincidence) between bud opening, development of pseudofundatrix and her offspring (more or less synchronized), and predators (Coccinellidae; larvae of Diptera). The results can differ according to the spectrum of predators and their specific phenology. Shifts of the infestation maximum from one year to the other are consequences not of density‐dependent compensations, but of varying “determination”. Probably, there are still o...
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