Photobiomodulation, also known as low-level laser/light therapy (LLLT), refers to the use of red-to-near-infrared light to stimulate cellular functions for physiological or clinical benefits. The mechanism of LLLT is assumed to rely on photon absorption by cytochrome c oxidase (CCO), the terminal enzyme in the mitochondrial respiratory chain that catalyzes the reduction of oxygen for energy metabolism. In this study, we used broadband near-infrared spectroscopy (NIRS) to measure the LLLT-induced changes in CCO and hemoglobin concentrations in human forearms in vivo. Eleven healthy participants were administered with 1064-nm laser and placebo treatments on their right forearms. The spectroscopic data were analyzed and fitted with wavelength-dependent, modified Beer-Lambert Law. We found that LLLT induced significant increases of CCO concentration (Δ[CCO]) and oxygenated hemoglobin concentration (Δ[HbO]) on the treated site as the laser energy dose accumulated over time. A strong linear interplay between Δ[CCO] and Δ[HbO] was observed for the first time during LLLT, indicating a hemodynamic response of oxygen supply and blood volume closely coupled to the up-regulation of CCO induced by photobiomodulation. These results demonstrate the tremendous potential of broadband NIRS as a non-invasive, in vivo means to study mechanisms of photobiomodulation and perform treatment evaluations of LLLT.

Noninvasive, direct measurement of local muscle blood flow in humans remains limited. Diffuse correlation spectroscopy (DCS) is an emerging technique to measure regional blood flow at the microvascular level. In order to better understand the strengths and limitations of this novel technique, we performed a validation study by comparing muscle blood flow changes measured with DCS and Doppler ultrasound during exercise. Nine subjects were measured (all males, 27.4 ± 2.9 years of age) for a rhythmic handgrip exercise at 20% and 50% of individual maximum voluntary contraction (MVC), followed by a post-exercise recovery. The results from DCS and Doppler ultrasound were highly correlated ( = 0.99 ± 0.02). DCS was more reliable and less susceptible to motion artifact.

Construction industry showing remarkable progression throughout the country, due to increasingly complex and fast-track construction projects; several projects are facing major problems like conflicts and dispute occurrence. These problems have become a widespread feature of the construction industry; if these are not resolute quickly they can worsen causing delays in schedule which results to claims that needs lawsuit measures to resolve them, loss of money & time. The main motto of this paper is to outcast the factors which are responsible for conflicts & dispute, hence in order to find out about these factors, a study is conducted which gives the variables responsible to these problem, some of these variables are due to owner, due to contract, due to human behavior etc. Since, conflicts & disputes are the reason of worry because a well planned construction project can"t run smoothly, efficiently due to these problems. Therefore it is very important to manage them for better and efficient completion of the projects. This paper is expected to be assistance for the management of conflicts & dispute in upcoming projects.

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