The four-chambered mammalian heart develops from two fields of cardiac progenitor cells (CPCs) distinguished by their spatiotemporal patterns of differentiation and contributions to the definitive heart [1–3]. The first heart field differentiates earlier in lateral plate mesoderm, generates the linear heart tube and ultimately gives rise to the left ventricle. The second heart field (SHF) differentiates later in pharyngeal mesoderm, elongates the heart tube, and gives rise to the outflow tract (OFT) and much of the right ventricle. Because hearts in lower vertebrates contain a rudimentary OFT but not a right ventricle [4], the existence and function of SHF-like cells in these species has remained a topic of speculation [4–10]. Here we provide direct evidence from Cre/Lox-mediated lineage tracing and loss of function studies in zebrafish, a lower vertebrate with a single ventricle, that latent-TGFβ binding protein 3 (ltbp3) transcripts mark a field of CPCs with defining characteristics of the anterior SHF in mammals. Specifically, ltbp3+ cells differentiate in pharyngeal mesoderm after formation of the heart tube, elongate the heart tube at the outflow pole, and give rise to three cardiovascular lineages in the OFT and myocardium in the distal ventricle. In addition to expressing Ltbp3, a protein that regulates the bioavailability of TGFβ ligands [11], zebrafish SHF cells co-express nkx2.5, an evolutionarily conserved marker of CPCs in both fields [4]. Embryos devoid of ltbp3 lack the same cardiac structures derived from ltbp3+ cells due to compromised progenitor proliferation. Additionally, small-molecule inhibition of TGFβ signaling phenocopies the ltbp3-morphant phenotype whereas expression of a constitutively active TGFβ type I receptor rescues it. Taken together, our findings uncover a requirement for ltbp3-TGFβ signaling during zebrafish SHF development, a process that serves to enlarge the single ventricular chamber in this species.

Ribosomal protein (RP) gene mutations, mostly associated with inherited or acquired bone marrow failure, are believed to drive disease by slowing the rate of protein synthesis. Here de novo missense mutations in the RPS23 gene, which codes for uS12, are reported in two unrelated individuals with microcephaly, hearing loss, and overlapping dysmorphic features. One individual additionally presents with intellectual disability and autism spectrum disorder. The amino acid substitutions lie in two highly conserved loop regions of uS12 with known roles in maintaining the accuracy of mRNA codon translation. Primary cells revealed one substitution severely impaired OGFOD1-dependent hydroxylation of a neighboring proline residue resulting in 40S ribosomal subunits that were blocked from polysome formation. The other disrupted a predicted pi-pi stacking interaction between two phenylalanine residues leading to a destabilized uS12 that was poorly tolerated in 40S subunit biogenesis. Despite no evidence of a reduction in the rate of mRNA translation, these uS12 variants impaired the accuracy of mRNA translation and rendered cells highly sensitive to oxidative stress. These discoveries describe a ribosomopathy linked to uS12 and reveal mechanistic distinctions between RP gene mutations driving hematopoietic disease and those resulting in developmental disorders.

The production of ribosomes is ubiquitous and fundamental to life. As such, it is surprising that defects in ribosome biogenesis underlie a growing number of symptomatically distinct inherited disorders, collectively called ribosomopathies. We previously determined that the nucleolar protein, NOL11, is essential for optimal pre-rRNA transcription and processing in human tissue culture cells. However, the role of NOL11 in the development of a multicellular organism remains unknown. Here, we reveal a critical function for NOL11 in vertebrate ribosome biogenesis and craniofacial development. Nol11 is strongly expressed in the developing cranial neural crest (CNC) of both amphibians and mammals, and knockdown of Xenopus nol11 results in impaired pre-rRNA transcription and processing, increased apoptosis, and abnormal development of the craniofacial cartilages. Inhibition of p53 rescues this skeletal phenotype, but not the underlying ribosome biogenesis defect, demonstrating an evolutionarily conserved control mechanism through which ribosome-impaired craniofacial cells are removed. Excessive activation of this mechanism impairs craniofacial development. Together, our findings reveal a novel requirement for Nol11 in craniofacial development, present the first frog model of a ribosomopathy, and provide further insight into the clinically important relationship between specific ribosome biogenesis proteins and craniofacial cell survival.

The carboxyl groups of tryptic peptides were derivatized with a tertiary or quaternary amine labeling reagent to generate more highly charged peptide ions that fragment efficiently by electron transfer dissociation (ETD). All peptide carboxyl groups—aspartic and glutamic acid side-chains as well as C-termini—were derivatized with an average reaction efficiency of 99%. This nearly complete labeling avoids making complex peptide mixtures even more complex due to partially-labeled products, and it allows the use of static modifications during database searching. Alkyl tertiary amines were found to be the optimal labeling reagent among the four types tested. Charge states are substantially higher for derivatized peptides: a modified tryptic digest of bovine serum albumin (BSA) generates ∼90% of its precursor ions with z > 2, compared to less than 40% for the unmodified sample. The increased charge density of modified peptide ions yields highly efficient ETD fragmentation, leading to many additional peptide identifications and higher sequence coverage (e.g. 70% for modified versus only 43% for unmodified BSA). The utility of this labeling strategy was demonstrated on a tryptic digest of ribosomal proteins isolated from yeast cells. Peptide derivatization of this sample produced an increase in the number of identified proteins, a >50% increase in the sequence coverage of these proteins, and a doubling of the number of peptide spectral matches. This carboxyl derivatization strategy greatly improves proteome coverage obtained from ETD-MS/MS of tryptic digests, and we anticipate that it will also enhance identification and localization of post-translational modifications.

Ribosomes are the cellular machines responsible for protein synthesis. Ribosome biogenesis, the production of ribosomes, is a complex process involving pre-ribosomal RNA (rRNA) cleavages and modifications as well as ribosomal protein assembly around the rRNAs to create the functional ribosome. The SSU processome is a large ribonucleoprotein (RNP) in eukaryotes required for the assembly of the small subunit (SSU) of the ribosome as well as for the maturation of the 18S rRNA. Despite the fundamental nature of the SSU processome to the survival of any eukaryotic cell, mutations in SSU processome components have been implicated in human diseases. Three SSU processome components and their related human diseases will be explored in this review: hUTP4/Cirhin, implicated in North American Indian Childhood Cirrhosis (NAIC); UTP14, implicated in infertility, ovarian cancer, and scleroderma; and EMG1, implicated in Bowen-Conradi Syndrome (BCS). Diseases with suggestive, though inconclusive, evidence for the involvement of the SSU processome in their pathogenesis are also discussed, including a novel putative ribosomopathy.