Giardia duodenalis, Cryptosporidium spp., and Entamoeba spp. are intestinal protozoa capable of infecting a range of host species, and are important causes of human morbidity and mortality. Understanding their epidemiology is important, both for public health and for the health of the animals they infect. This study investigated the occurrence of these protozoans in rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta) in India, with the aim of providing preliminary information on the potential for transmission of these pathogens between macaques and humans. Faecal samples (n = 170) were collected from rhesus macaques from four districts of North-West India. Samples were analysed for Giardia/Cryptosporidium using a commercially available direct immunofluorescent antibody test after purification via immunomagnetic separation. Positive samples were characterised by sequencing of PCR products. Occurrence of Entamoeba was investigated first by using a genus-specific PCR, and positive samples further investigated via species-specific PCRs for Entamoeba coli, Entamoeba histolytica, Entamoeba dispar and Entamoeba moshkovskii. Giardia cysts were found in 31% of macaque samples, with all isolates belonging to Assemblage B. Cryptosporidium oocysts were found in 1 sample, however this sample did not result in amplification by PCR. Entamoeba spp. were found in 79% of samples, 49% of which were positive for E. coli. Multiplex PCR for E. histolytica, E. dispar and E. moshkovskii, did not result in amplification in any of the samples. Thus in 51% of the samples positive at the genus specific PCR, the Entamoeba species was not identified. This study provides baseline information on the potential for transmission of these zoonotic parasites at the wildlife-human interface.

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Mucormycosis is a rare angioinvasive fungal infection attributed to filamentous fungi called mucormycetes [1]. According to reports published during the period between December 2019 and early April 2021. Approximately 71% of the cases of mucormycosis in COVID infected individuals across the globe have been reported from India [2]. A sudden surge in cases of mucormycosis during the ongoing covid-19 pandemic has been witnessed recently and several factors have been proposed to explain this unexpected outbreak. Studies suggest that severe COVID-19 patients become immunocompromised and therefore are more susceptible to fungal infection [3]. Diabetes Milletus has been recognized as one of the important risk factors for mucormycosis [4]. A recent study identified the associated risk factors, clinical features, and outcomes of COVID-19-associated mucormycosis [2]. The over-zealous use of steroids in treatment of covid-19 patients has also been identified as one of the potential reasons for a rise in cases of mucormycosis during the ongoing pandemic. Hence the triad of immunocompromised host, diabetes mellitus and steroids has been established as the main reason behind the sudden rise in cases of Mucormycosis. Recently other factors such as the rise in serum ferritin levels, long term stays in the intensive care units, increased intake of zinc and antibiotics have also been documented [5-7].