According to the Norwegian Diversity Act, practitioners of restoration in Norway are instructed to use seed mixtures of local provenance. However, there are no guidelines for how local seed should be selected. In this study, we use genetic variation in a set of alpine species (Agrostis mertensii, Avenella flexuosa, Carex bigelowii, Festuca ovina, Poa alpina and Scorzoneroides autumnalis) to define seed transfer zones to reduce confusion about the definition of ‘local seeds’. The species selected for the study are common in all parts of Norway and suitable for commercial seed production. The sampling covered the entire alpine region (7–20 populations per species, 3–15 individuals per population). We characterised genetic diversity using amplified fragment length polymorphisms. We identified different spatial genetic diversity structures in the species, most likely related to differences in reproductive strategies, phylogeographic factors and geographic distribution. Based on results from all species, we suggest four general seed transfer zones for alpine Norway. This is likely more conservative than needed for all species, given that no species show more than two genetic groups. Even so, the approach is practical as four seed mixtures will serve the need for restoration of vegetation in alpine regions in Norway.

Question: Can genetic tools combined with phytogeography help to define local plants and how geographically close the source population should be to the restoration site? Location: Subalpine and alpine French Pyrenees. Methods: The main phytogeographic boundaries in the French Pyrenees described by different authors were studied and this geographic pattern was compared with the results of genetic analysis for the four Pyrenean plants studied (Trifolium alpinum, Festuca eskia, Festuca gautieri and Rumex scutatus), based on random amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD) marker analysis, unweighted pair-group method with arithmetic averages (UPGMA) analysis and Mantel correlograms comparing geographic and genetic distances. Results: The genetic analysis allowed definition of two main evolutionarily significant units (ESUs) for the plants under study. Although the limit between the two zones was slightly variable according to the species considered, an eastern and a western ESU was consistently observed. This delineation was concordant with the main phytogeographic boundaries of the French Pyrenees. Conclusion: RAPD markers and associated Mantel correlograms can be useful to draw ESUs for individual species when the sampling intensity is relatively dense, and similarities were revealed between species sharing the same distribution range. This delineation allowed integration of infraspecific plant variation in the management of natural resources for revegetation in the Pyrenees. Nevertheless, caution is needed for the establishment of seed pools in order to maximize genetic diversity in each of the pools during collection and production.

Ecological restoration has developed greatly over recent decades. Promoting harmonious relationships between scientists and practitioners, between restoration ecology and ecological restoration, is essential to improving restoration projects. These relationships are difficult to achieve at a global scale, although international action remains essential. Therefore, regional and national networks are attempting to take up the challenge. With several European countries planning to create their own network in the coming years, insights from current practice are helpful. Here, we (1) describe the context in which ecological restoration is developing in France and (2)

Abstract.-Trifolium alpinum L. is an important component of the high-elevated grazing ecosystem in the French Pyrenees. To assess population relationships and levels of geographical differentiation of it in this region, we analysed forty populations sampled in ten river catchments by RAPD. Our results indicated intermediate level of genetic diversity in most populations, most of it being attributed to intrapopulation variation after AMOVA. Population differentiation evaluated through F ST and exact tests showed that an important genetic differentiation exists among populations. This differentiation is to some extent explained by the occurrence of two divergent groups along the massif that distinguish an eastern and a western pool of T. alpinum populations. Paleoclimatic episodes of the Quaternary, involving altitudinal species migration from glacial refugia, could explain the pattern of neutral diversity observed. Additional factors such as adaptative divergence or species life traits are proposed to explain the maintenance of this pattern through time.Key words : altitudinal migration -genetic diversity -mountain flora -phylogeography -population structure -quaternary glaciations.Résumé.-Trifolium alpinum L. est une composante importante des pâturages du versant français des Pyrénées. Pour évaluer les relations entre les populations et son niveau de différenciation génétique dans cette région, nous avons analysé quarante populations issues de dix bassins versants à l'aide de marqueurs neutres RAPD. Nos résultats indiquent des niveaux moyens de diversité génétique dans la plupart des populations étudiées, dont la plus grande partie est attribuée à une variation intrapopulation. La différenciation évaluée par le F ST et par tests exacts montre qu'il existe une importante différenciation entre les populations, qui s'explique en partie par l'existence de deux groupes distincts le long du massif séparant les populations de T. alpinum de l'est de la chaîne de celles de l'ouest. Les épisodes paléoclimatiques du Quaternaire, incluant des migrations altitudinales d'espèces depuis des refuges glaciaires, pourraient expliquer la structuration de la diversité neutre observée. Des facteurs complé-mentaires, comme une divergence adaptative ou les traits de vie de l'espèce, peuvent expliquer la conservation de cette structuration jusqu'à nos jours.Mots clés : migration altitudinale -diversité génétique -flore orophile -phylogéographie -structuration des populations -glaciations quaternaires.

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