Purpose of Review The goal of this review is to summarize the current knowledge of the epidemiology, clinical manifestations, diagnosis, and treatment of cutaneous, mucosal, and visceral leishmaniasis. We will describe the most recent findings and suggest areas of further research in the leishmaniasis field. Recent Findings This article reviews newer leishmaniasis tests (including rapid diagnostic tests using rK39 antibodies), vaccine candidates, and updated treatment recommendations. Summary While leishmaniasis is a complex disease, learning the prominent clinical manifestations and major parasite species can guide the recommendations for diagnosis and treatment.

Impulsivity and compulsivity are prominent non-motor problems in Parkinson's disease (PD). Despite 20 years of research, there is still an ongoing debate as to whether subthalamic deep brain stimulation (STN DBS) for PD exacerbates or improves these symptoms. Here, we review how STN DBS affects clinical symptoms and neurocognitive aspects of impulsivity and compulsivity. When comparing patients post-to pre-surgery, in the majority of studies STN DBS for PD is associated with a decrease in clinically diagnosed impulse-control disorders and disorders of compulsivity. To avoid confounds, such as post-surgical decreases in dopaminergic medication doses, comparisons can also be made between DBS "On" versus "Off" conditions. These experimentally assayed effects of STN DBS with respect to neurocognitive aspects of impulsivity and compulsivity are more mixed. STN DBS improves behavioral flexibility without impairing negative feedback learning, delay discounting, or inhibitory control, as long as stimulation is restricted to the dorsal STN. However, STN DBS may drive impulsive actions when a subject is faced with competing choices. We discuss how motivated responses may be either enhanced or impaired by STN DBS depending on engagement of dorsal or ventral STN-mediated circuits. Future studies should combine structural and functional circuit measures with behavioral testing in PD patients on and off medication and stimulation. A more sophisticated understanding of how to modulate corticostriatal-thalamo-cortical loops will increase the likelihood that these circuit manipulation techniques can successfully be applied to a wider range of neuropsychiatric disorders.

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