Background Although quantitative single-cell analysis is frequently applied in animal systems, e.g. to identify novel drugs, similar applications on plant single cells are largely missing. We have exploited the applicability of high-throughput microscopic image analysis on plant single cells using tobacco leaf protoplasts, cell-wall free single cells isolated by lytic digestion. Protoplasts regenerate their cell wall within several days after isolation and have the potential to expand and proliferate, generating microcalli and finally whole plants after the application of suitable regeneration conditions. Results High-throughput automated microscopy coupled with the development of image processing pipelines allowed to quantify various developmental properties of thousands of protoplasts during the initial days following cultivation by immobilization in multi-well-plates. The focus on early protoplast responses allowed to study cell expansion prior to the initiation of proliferation and without the effects of shape-compromising cell walls. We compared growth parameters of wild-type tobacco cells with cells expressing the antiapoptotic protein Bcl2-associated athanogene 4 from Arabidopsis (AtBAG4). Conclusions AtBAG4-expressing protoplasts showed a higher proportion of cells responding with positive area increases than the wild type and showed increased growth rates as well as increased proliferation rates upon continued cultivation. These features are associated with reported observations on a BAG4-mediated increased resilience to various stress responses and improved cellular survival rates following transformation approaches. Moreover, our single-cell expansion results suggest a BAG4-mediated, cell-independent increase of potassium channel abundance which was hitherto reported for guard cells only. The possibility to explain plant phenotypes with single-cell properties, extracted with the single-cell processing and analysis pipeline developed, allows to envision novel biotechnological screening strategies able to determine improved plant properties via single-cell analysis.

Alternation of generations between a sporophytic and gametophytic developmental stage is a feature common to all land plants. This review will discuss the evolutionary origins of these two developmental programs from unicellular eukaryotic progenitors establishing the ability to switch between haploid and diploid states. We will compare the various genetic factors that regulate this switch and highlight the mechanisms which are involved in maintaining the separation of sporophytic and gametophytic developmental programs. While haploid and diploid stages were morphologically similar at early evolutionary stages, largely different gametophyte and sporophyte developments prevail in land plants and finally allowed the development of pollen as the male gametes with specialized structures providing desiccation tolerance and allowing long-distance dispersal. Moreover, plant gametes can be reprogrammed to execute the sporophytic development prior to the formation of the diploid stage achieved with the fusion of gametes and thus initially maintain the haploid stage. Upon diploidization, doubled haploids can be generated which accelerate modern plant breeding as homozygous plants are obtained within one generation. Thus, knowledge of the major signaling pathways governing this dual ontogeny in land plants is not only required for basic research but also for biotechnological applications to develop novel breeding methods accelerating trait development.

Conductive-bridging random access memory devices are a candidate for artificial synapses for neuromorphic computing. However, there is still an incomplete understanding of the fundamentals of the filament evolution process. In this work, we study the effect of three imaging electron current densities on nanoscale filament dynamics in a model Cu/SiO2/Cu structure during in situ TEM electroforming of the device. We find that the filaments grow from the anode to the cathode in the form of discontinuous precipitates for all the imaging electron current densities. However, increasing the imaging electron current density results in a larger injection of Cu into SiO2. Comparing the results of voltage ramp tests in air, in the TEM vacuum without electron irradiation and, in the TEM vacuum with electron irradiation, we suggest a possible mechanism of filament evolution in vacuum. Specifically, we postulate a vacancy defect generation enabled injection of Cu ions into the dielectric as the mechanism behind filament evolution in vacuum that reconciles differing observations found in the literature.