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The Armed Forces Radiobiological Research Institute (AFRRI) has developed a research program to determine the major health risks from exposure to ionizing radiation in combination with biological and chemical warfare agents and to assess the extent to which exposure to ionizing radiation compromises the effectiveness of protective drugs, vaccines, and other biological and chemical warfare prophylactic and treatment strategies. AFRRI's Defense Technology Objective MD22 supports the development of treatment modalities and studies to assess the mortality rates for combined injuries from exposure to ionizing radiation and Bacillus anthracis, and research to provide data for casualty prediction models that assess the health consequences of combined exposures. In conjunction with the Defense Threat Reduction Agency, our research data are contributing to the development of casualty prediction models that estimate mortality and incapacitation in an environment of radiation exposure plus other weapons of mass destruction. Specifically, the AFFRI research program assesses the effects of ionizing radiation exposure in combination with B. aninracis, Venezuelan equine encephalomyelitis virus, Shigella sonnet, nerve agents, and mustard as well as their associated treatments and vaccines. In addition, the long-term psychological effects of radiation combined with nuclear, biological, and chemical (NBC) injuries are being evaluated. We are also assessing the effectiveness of ' Y photons and high-speed neutrons and electrons for neutralizing biological and chemical warfare agents. New protocols based on our NBC bioeffects experiments will enable U.S. armed forces to accomplish military operations in NBC environments while optimizing both survival and military performance. Preserving combatants' health in an NBC environment will improve warfighting operations and mission capabilities.Radiation Threats on the Battlefield W ith the end ofthe Cold Warand the ensuingcollapse ofthe Warsaw Pact, a shift in the nature of the nuclear threat occurred. The threat ofmutually assured destruction resulting from a thermonuclear warwas replaced withthe threat ofradiation exposure from nuclear accidents, single nuclear detonations, loss of centralized control over radioactive material, and nuclear/radiological terrorism. New concerns have emerged about the possible use of radiological dispersion devices that would spread radioactive material over facilities or terrain with the aim of denying or impeding access by operational forces. Another concern is that the number of nations with nuclear Nuclear/Biological/Chemlcal Interactions and Countermeasures Research Team,

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