Summary How pseudouridylation (Ψ), the most common and evolutionarily conserved modification of rRNA, regulates ribosome activity is poorly understood. Medically, Ψ is important because the rRNA Ψ synthase, DKC1, is mutated in X-linked Dyskeratosis Congenita (X-DC) and Hoyeraal-Hreidarsson syndrome (HH). Here we characterize ribosomes isolated from a yeast strain where Cbf5p, the yeast homologue of DKC1, is catalytically impaired through a D95A mutation (cbf5-D95A). Ribosomes from cbf5-D95A cells display decreased affinities for tRNA binding to the A- and P-sites as well as the cricket paralysis virus IRES (Internal Ribosome Entry Site), which interacts with both the P- and E-sites of the ribosome. This biochemical impairment in ribosome activity manifests as decreased translational fidelity and IRES-dependent translational initiation, which are also evident in mouse and human cells deficient for DKC1 activity. These findings uncover specific roles for Ψ modification in ribosome-ligand interactions that are conserved in yeast, mouse, and humans.

Programmed –1 ribosomal frameshift (–1 PRF) signals redirect translating ribosomes to slip back one base on messenger RNAs. Although well characterized in viruses, how these elements may regulate cellular gene expression is not understood. Here we describe a –1 PRF signal in the human mRNA encoding CCR5, the HIV-1 co-receptor. CCR5 mRNA-mediated –1 PRF is directed by an mRNA pseudoknot, and is stimulated by at least two microRNAs. Mapping the mRNA–miRNA interaction suggests that formation of a triplex RNA structure stimulates –1 PRF. A –1 PRF event on the CCR5 mRNA directs translating ribosomes to a premature termination codon, destabilizing it through the nonsense-mediated mRNA decay pathway. At least one additional mRNA decay pathway is also involved. Functional –1 PRF signals that seem to be regulated by miRNAs are also demonstrated in mRNAs encoding six other cytokine receptors, suggesting a novel mode through which immune responses may be fine-tuned in mammalian cells.

During ribosome biogenesis in eukaryotes, nascent subunits are exported to the cytoplasm in a functionally inactive state. 60S subunits are activated through a series of cytoplasmic maturation events. The last known events in the cytoplasm are the release of Tif6 by Efl1 and Sdo1 and the release of the export adapter, Nmd3, by the GTPase Lsg1. Here, we have used cryo-electron microscopy to determine the structure of the 60S subunit bound by Nmd3, Lsg1, and Tif6. We find that a central domain of Nmd3 mimics the translation elongation factor eIF5A, inserting into the E site of the ribosome and pulling the L1 stalk into a closed position. Additional domains occupy the P site and extend toward the sarcin-ricin loop to interact with Tif6. Nmd3 and Lsg1 together embrace helix 69 of the B2a intersubunit bridge, inducing base flipping that we suggest may activate the GTPase activity of Lsg1.

The catalytic activity of the ribosome is mediated by RNA, yet proteins are essential for the function of the peptidyl transferase center (PTC). In eukaryotes, final assembly of the PTC occurs in the cytoplasm by insertion of the ribosomal protein Rpl10 (uL16). We determine structures of six intermediates in late nuclear and cytoplasmic maturation of the large subunit that reveal a tightly-choreographed sequence of protein and RNA rearrangements controlling the insertion of Rpl10. We also determine the structure of the biogenesis factor Yvh1 and show how it promotes assembly of the P stalk, a critical element for recruitment of GTPases that drive translation. Together, our structures provide a blueprint for final assembly of a functional ribosome.

West Nile virus (WNV) is a prototypical emerging virus for which no effective therapeutics currently exist. WNV uses programmed ؊1 ribosomal frameshifting (؊1 PRF) to synthesize the NS1 protein, a C terminally extended version of its nonstructural protein 1, the expression of which enhances neuroinvasiveness and viral RNA abundance. Here, the NS1 frameshift signals derived from four WNV strains were investigated to better understand ؊1 PRF in this quasispecies. Sequences previously predicted to promote ؊1 PRF strongly promote this activity, but frameshifting was significantly more efficient upon inclusion of additional 3 sequence information. The observation of different rates of ؊1 PRF, and by inference differences in the expression of NS1, may account for the greater degrees of pathogenesis associated with specific WNV strains. Chemical modification and mutational analyses of the longer and shorter forms of the ؊1 PRF signals suggests dynamic structural rearrangements between tandem stem-loop and mRNA pseudoknot structures in two of the strains. A model is suggested in which this is employed as a molecular switch to fine tune the relative expression of structural to non-structural proteins during different phases of the viral replication cycle.