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Drawing on the philosophical differentiation between sex and gender, this article focuses on structural mechanisms of gender discrimination within European pension systems. For this purpose, the article distinguishes between two dimensions of the gender category: the work behaviour dimension and the care dimension. It is argued that the differentiation between employment and family work on the one hand and specific living arrangements on the other is structurally implemented within old age security systems. All countries have established earnings-related schemes which, to various extents, refer to former earnings and continuous working careers. Many of the earnings-related schemes incorporate family work in one way or another by granting entitlement for the care of children and/or elderly or handicapped people. Most of the schemes are combined with additional benefits for spouses and/or survivors, referring to married heterosexual couples. Only a few countries have additionally established universal pension schemes based on residence instead of employment or family work. The comparative analysis of pension systems in the 15 EU member states gives an idea about national varieties of structural gender differentiation.

The article compares the development of childcare policies in Germany and Austria. Although both countries are characterized by a conservative welfare regime, they developed very different childcare policies. Historically speaking, Austria pioneered in the introductory period whereas Germany outpaced Austria with the latest reforms. The article argues that ideological party differences account for policy change. The gender and family models promoted by the governing parties shaped the development of childcare policies decisively. But party positions changed over time due to general emancipation processes, intra-party conflicts and constraints by coalition partners. Thus, the ‘parties matter’ thesis explains policy development only partly. The historical context of policy making has to be taken into consideration as well.

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