Further work on the study of 'resistance of infants and children during mental tests' 1 consisted in making detailed records of the behavior manifested. Notes were recorded immediately while the children were being tested, from the moment of entrance into the testing room to the time of exit. The items grouped themselves into convenient classifications, designated in Table I. The resistance-patterns of one hundred and ten children, six to fifty-four months of age, were tabulated in this way. They represent one hundred and ten out of a total of two hundred and forty-two cases examined in one town. In the following table the number, studied in such detail, are arranged according to sex in six-month age groups. Age in MonthsMale Female 6-II 13 9 0 0 (b) Screaming, not strug-(r) Struggling, not cry-M. F. NUMBER OF CASES IN EACH RESISTANCE GROUP BY SEX AND AGE IN ONE YEAR INTERVALS Total Number of Cases Age Groups 1. Crying 2. Clinging 3. Pushing toyt 4. Hitting examiner 5. Screaming and struggling..

ULY 19, 1956, saw the passing of one of the most distinguished figures in the field of Clinical Psychology-in fact the very man who first J introduced the term clinical psychology and who visualized the development of professional psychology.Lightner Witmer was a pioneer who for some reason never received the full credit which was richly his due for having been the father of Clinical Psychology. At a time when psychology was preoccupied with general theoretical problems and investigations of minute sensorimotor phenomena, Witmer's chief concern began to be the study of the child as an individual and in all of his relationships as a person.

The problem of cooperation during mental tests is especially important in the early ages. Screaming, struggling, kicking, clinging to the mother, are manifestations frequent in the first four years though rarely observed in testing children of school age. Such behavior often invalidates tests that may be well chosen from a psychometric viewpoint. Psychologists at the Institute for Juvenile Research are all agreed that the 'imitation' test in the Kuhlman two year level, for example, is the least 'acceptable'; i.e., children are more resistant during this test than during any other in his series. This holds true whether the testing is done under the adverse conditions of a 'Better Baby Conference' held in the County Fair or under the natural conditions of the nursery. Moreover eight psychologists (four men, four women), experienced in testing at the numerous baby conferences held in Chicago and throughout the State of Illinois in the past four years, are agreed that regardless of the test used, more difficulty in giving the tests is encountered with the threeyear-olds than with any other age group.This behavior presents an important problem because it interferes with testing. But this practical consideration involves the study of this resistance as a problem of human behavior, since it must be determined whether the resistance is inherent in the tests chosen, in the technic of their administration, in the surroundings, or in the group that is tested. The psychologist interested in formulating new tests for infants and children must consider this factor when devising tests. The student of behavior is interested primarily in knowing whether this behavior is incidental to the testing 6 «3 I 35-3 59 i 47-3 37-5

Institute for Child Guidance, New York City clinical psychologist owes much to the work of Binet for attention to the need of treatment. I take it that as members of the Orthopsychiatric Association you are doubtless aware of the fact that Binet was the first one to introduce the term mental orthopedics. "Having on our hands children who did not know how to listen, to pay attention, to keep quiet, we pictured our first duty as being not to teach them the facts that we thought would be most useful, but to teach them how to learn. We have therefore devised, with the aid of M. Belot, and all our other collaborators, what we call exercises of mental orthopedics. The word is expressive and has come into favor. One can guess its meaning. In the same way that physical orthopedics straightens a crooked spine, mental orthopedics strengthens, cultivates and fortifies attention, memory, perception, judgment, and will."'Nearly thirty years passed between the establishment of the first psychological laboratory and the publication of the first mental age scale of Binet. It took another ten years before the scale gained recognition and widespread use. It is fairly safe to say that practically no academic psychologist writing a text book in psychology before 1920 devoted any space to the discussion of tests, while it is equally safe to say that practically no text written in the last few years fails to devote considerable space to tests. However, as yet, very little is said about treatment. The present may rightly be called a transition period. The clinical psychologist is just beginning to get recognition and help in his attempt to emerge from the 1.Q.-indicator stage and to develop a technique in treatment of behavior and personality problems.The child guidance movement in the evolution of its organization clearly recognizes the need for group attack on the intricate problems which it has to face. "The distinguishing characteristic of the mental hygiene clinic lies in the association together of psychiatrist, psychologist, and psychiatric social worker in the joint THE his testing technique. It was also Binet, however, who called 'Quotation from Peterson: Early Conceptions and Tests of Intelligence. p. 276 f.

HE present and future diagnostic role of the clinical psychologist with T special reference to the child guidance clinic type of organization is the topic assigned to me. It may be restated in two questions. By utilizing his testing technique, what contribution does the clinical psychologist make which results in a better understanding and evaluation of the child who presents problems in behavior and personality adjustment? What is the probable direction in the field of clinical tests and measurements which may broaden the scope of the psychologist's functions and enhance his contribution?The psychologist's approach to his problem is dynamic. At times actual progress may appear slow. Individual differences in the training, experience and maturity of the psychologist, as well as variations in the work philosophy of the organization of which he is a member and in the opportunities which it offers, all play an important part in determining the degree and rate of progress. It is fair to say, however, that he maintains a healthy critical attitude toward the diagnostic tools a t his disposal and is constantly re-evaluating his contribution to the clinical field. Viewed in its historical perspective and briefly stated, the psychologist's position in the clinical field is a development which grew out of his interest in and study of individual differences. The publication of the first mental age scale of Binet in the early part of the century gave a tremendous impetus to the work of the psychologist. However, the development of mental tests which followed also influenced the direction of growth and did much to circumscribe the field of the psychologist's endeavor. The psychologist became identified with mental testing and this identification is apparently less and less to his liking. It is of interest to note that historically the psychologist shares a common background of experience with the other members of the clinic team. The psychologist, as well as his colleagues, the psychiatrist and the psychiatric social worker, can trace present interest in behavior difficulties and personality maladjustment to a former more exclusive concern with extreme pathological deviates. Thus, the psychiatrist worked with the psychotic, the seriously disturbed neurotic and, in general, with those who exhibited marked abnormality and deviation. The psychiatric social worker, before she became so designated and specially trained, was primarily concerned with extreme poverty, crime, parental neglect and other conditions of social pathology. The psychologist too was interested in the grossly misfit. Binet's mental age scale was the result of his attempt to devise a method for the selection of mentally retarded children in the school system of Paris, and the psychologist's early work dealt with selection, diagnosis and classification and was done largely in institutions for the feebleminded and delinquents.Working individually in their respective fields the psychiatrist, psychologist 397This document is copyrighted by the American Psychologica...