A multi-mycotoxin LC-MS/MS method was developed to quantify 13 free and modified Alternaria toxins in different beer types by applying a combination of stable-isotope dilution assays (SIDAs) and matrix-matched calibration. With limits of detection (LODs) between 0.03 µg/L (alternariol monomethyl ether, AME) and 5.48 µg/L (altenuene, ALT), limits of quantitation (LOQs) between 0.09 µg/L (AME) and 16.24 µg/L (ALT), and recoveries between 72 and 113%, we obtained a sensitive and reliable method, which also covers the emerging toxins alternariol-3-glucoside (AOH-3-G), alternariol-9-glucoside (AOH-9-G), alternariol monomethyl ether-3-glucoside (AME-3-G) and alternariol-3-sulfate (AOH-3-S) and alternariol monomethylether-3-sulfate (AME-3-S). Furthermore, 50 different beer samples were analyzed, showing no contamination with Alternaria toxins apart from tenuazonic acid (TeA) in concentrations between 0.69 µg/L and 16.5 µg/L. According to this study, the exposure towards TeA through beer consumption can be considered as relatively low, as the threshold of toxicological concern (TTC) value of 1500 ng/kg body weight per day might not be reached when consuming reasonable amounts of beer.

Reference standards for Alternaria mycotoxins are rarely available, especially the modified mycotoxins alternariol-3-glucoside (AOH-3-G), alternariol-9-glucoside (AOH-9-G), and alternariol monomethylether-3-glucoside (AME-3-G). To obtain these three glucosides as analytical standards for method development and method validation, alternariol and alternariol monomethylether were enzymatically glycosylated in a whole-cell biotransformation system using a glycosyltransferase from strawberry (Fragaria x ananassa), namely UGT71A44, expressed in Escherichia coli (E. coli). The formed glucosides were isolated, purified, and structurally characterized. The exact amount of the isolated compounds was determined using high-performance liquid chromatography with UV-detection (HPLC-UV) and quantitative nuclear resonance spectroscopy (qNMR). This method has proved to be highly effective with biotransformation rates of 58% for AOH-3-G, 5% for AOH-9-G, and 24% for AME-3-G.

A liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (LC–MS/MS) multi-mycotoxin method was developed for the analysis of the Alternaria toxins alternariol (AOH), alternariol monomethyl ether (AME), tentoxin (TEN), altertoxin I (ATX I), altertoxin II (ATX II), alterperylenol (ALTP), and altenuene (ALT), as well as the modified toxins AOH-3-glucoside (AOH-3-G), AOH-9-glucoside (AOH-9-G), AME-3-glucoside (AME-3-G), AOH-3-sulfate (AOH-3-S), and AME-3-sulfate (AME-3-S) in barley and malt. The toxin tenuazonic acid (TeA) was analyzed separately as it could not be included into the multi-mycotoxin method. Quantitation was conducted by using a combination of stable isotope dilution analysis (SIDA) for AOH, AME, and TeA, and matrix-matched calibration for all other toxins. Limits of detection were between 0.05 µg/kg (AME) and 2.45 µg/kg (ALT), whereas limits of quantitation ranged from 0.16 µg/kg (AME) to 8.75 µg/kg (ALT). Recoveries between 96 and 107% were obtained for the analytes when SIDA was applied, while recoveries between 84 and 112% were found for analytes quantified by matrix-matched calibration. The method was applied for the analysis of 50 barley samples and their respective malts from the harvest years 2016–2020 for their mycotoxin content, showing the overall potential of toxin formation during the malting process. The toxins ALTP and ATX I were mainly found in the malt samples, but not in barley.

To assess the impact of black-colored grain on Alternaria mycotoxin concentrations in different stages of the brewing process, brewing experiments were conducted in a microscale brewhouse. Different mixtures of visually unaffected and black-colored batches of two malt samples were used, which were obtained by an optical sorting device. The 13 Alternaria mycotoxins alternariol (AOH), alternariol monomethyl ether (AME), tenuazonic acid (TeA), tentoxin (TEN), alterperylenol (ALTP), altertoxins I and II (ATX I and II), altenuene (ALT) as well as the modified forms AOH-3-glucoside (AOH-3-G), AOH-9-glucoside (AOH-9-G), AME-3-gluoside (AME-3-G), AOH-3-sulfate (AOH-3-S) and AME-3-sulfate (AME-3-S) were analyzed in each processing step by liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry (LC–MS/MS), and the toxin concentrations were balanced over the whole brewing process. Fungal DNA content in the starting material (mixtures) was determined by quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction (qPCR). In this study, TeA was the only toxin to migrate into the final beer, while the AOH, AME, TEN, ALTP and ATX I toxins were mainly found in the spent grains. The observance of AOH-3-S and AME-3-S in some processing steps also showed the possibility of modification reactions during brewing. Furthermore, no distinct correlations between the fungal DNA and the analyzed mycotoxins could be observed in the starting material, while the amount of black colored grains only impacted toxin concentrations in one of the two used malt samples. Nevertheless, it was shown that optical sorting of malt batches might be a useful tool for the malting and brewing industry to prevent elevated mycotoxin concentrations.

Fungi of the genus Alternaria are ubiquitous in the environment. Their mycotoxins can leach out of contaminated plants or crop debris into the soil entering the plant via the roots. We aim to evaluate the importance of this entry pathway and its contribution to the overall content of Alternaria toxins (ATs) in wheat plants to better understand the soil–plant-phytopathogen system. A hydroponic cultivation system was established and wheat plants were cultivated for up to two weeks under optimal climate conditions. One half of the plants was treated with a nutrient solution spiked with alternariol (AOH), alternariol monomethyl ether (AME), and tenuazonic acid (TeA), whereas the other half of the plants was cultivated without mycotoxins. Plants were harvested after 1 and 2 weeks and analyzed using a QuEChERS-based extraction and an in-house validated LC–MS/MS method for quantification of the ATs in roots, crowns, and leaves separately. ATs were taken up by the roots and transported throughout the plant up to the leaves after 1 as well as 2 weeks of cultivation with the roots showing the highest ATs levels followed by the crowns and the leaves. In addition, numerous AOH and AME conjugates like glucosides, malonyl glucosides, sulfates, and di/trihexosides were detected in different plant compartments and identified by high-resolution mass spectrometry. This is the first study demonstrating the uptake of ATs in vivo using a hydroponic system and whole wheat plants examining both the distribution of ATs within the plant compartments and the modification of ATs by the wheat plants.