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Water is becoming degraded at an increasingly rapid rate, demanding complex, dynamic strategies tailored to local contexts. This study focused on innovative strategies by farmers to reduce risk and increase incomes. The surface and groundwater they used for irrigation was becoming degraded because of inflows of largely untreated urban domestic sewage water and industrial effluent into the Musi River that runs through Hyderabad city, south India. Wastewater flowing into the river is channeled for irrigation in this drought-prone, semi-arid area with falling groundwater tables. Wastewater volumes have increased as more water is supplied to Hyderabad. Paddy farmers engaged in continuous innovation in agricultural and water management strategies in response to deteriorating irrigation water quality yet improved water availability. Findings point to the need for greater recognition and dissemination of local innovations and a reversal of knowledge flows entailing improved linkages between local populations, researchers, managers, development workers, and policy makers.

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Abstract:Hydropower is often termed "green energy" and proffered as an alternative to polluting coal-generated electricity for burgeoning cities and energy-insecure rural areas. India is the third largest coal producer in the world; it is projected to be the largest coal consumer by 2050. In the Himalayan state of Uttarakhand, India, over 450 hydroelectric power schemes are proposed or are under development. Hydropower projects ranging from micro hydro (run-of-the-river systems with generating capacity up to 100 kW) to large reservoirs (storage systems up to 2000 MW) such as the Tehri Dam are in various stages of planning, construction or implementation. Run-of-the-river hydropower projects are being developed in Uttarakhand in order to avoid some of the costs to local communities created by large dams. Stakeholders in this rapid hydropower expansion include multiple actors with often diverging sets of interests. The resulting governance challenges are centered on tradeoffs between local electricity and revenue from the sale of hydropower, on the one hand, and the impacts on small-scale irrigation systems, riparian-corridor ecosystem services, and other natural resource-based livelihoods, on the other. We focus on the Bhilangana river basin, where water dependent livelihoods differentiated by gender include farming, fishing, livestock rearing and fodder collection. We examine the contradictions inherent in hydropower governance based on the interests of local residents and other stakeholders including hydropower developers, urban and other regional electricity users, and state-level policymakers. We use a social justice approach applied to hydropower projects to examine some of the negative impacts, especially by location and gender, of these projects on local communities and then identify strategies that can safeguard or enhance livelihoods of women, youth, and men in areas with hydropower projects, while also maintaining critical ecosystem services. By assessing the Bhilangana basin case, we also offer hydropower-livelihoods-irrigation nexus lessons for headwater regions across the Himalayas and globally.

Deteriorating surface water quality from poor sewage disposal, and lack of alternative water sources have resulted in partially diluted and sometimes untreated wastewater being used for local irrigation in urban, peri-urban and even rural agriculture by the poor. Un(der)employment, and a demand for fresh perishable food products by city dwellers are other drivers of this practice.Scenarios typical of conditions in poor countries are presented through case studies focusing more specifically on India, Pakistan, Vietnam, and Ghana. These emphasize water and nutrient value and the necessity for conjunctive use. Year round availability that allows for multiple cultivation cycles results in a different cropping pattern to regular water use. Earnings from wastewater agriculture lift farmers out of poverty. Farming also ensures food security for the poorer households. Countering these benefits are health risks to farmers and consumers from helminth infections in particular. The current situation of wastewater agriculture requires immediate solutions.The policy implications of applying wastewater use guidelines in resource-poor situations are analyzed and short-term alternative management responses are presented. In conclusion the potential for land application of wastewater as a possible lower-cost solution which will simultaneously improve environmental sanitation and downstream water quality is briefly discussed. Copyright # 2005 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.key words: wastewater agriculture; livelihoods; urban wastewater; water quality; health; city food supply RÉ SUMÉ La pollution des eaux de surface, due à une mauvaise gestion des eaux usées en milieu urbain, et la manque des sources alternatives en eau d'irrigation, ont poussé les pauvres d'utiliser des eaux polluées pour l'agriculture en zones urbaines et peri-urbaines, et rurales même. D'autres raisons pour ceci, sont le manque d'emplois et la demande croissante des villes pour des produits frais et périssable. L'article présente les manières qu'ils utilisent cette eau en pays pauvre, en étalant plus particulièrement des exemples venant de l'Inde, du Pakistan, du Vietnam et du Ghana. Ces exemples montrent l'importance attribuée à la valeur des nutriments contenus dans l'eau, et le besoin d'une utilisation conjonctive avec d'autres sources d'eau. La présence en continue de cette ressource a l'avantage de donner lieu à de multiples cycles de cultures maraîchers qui sont différents des cultures aux eaux propres. Les revenues aident à surmonter la pauvreté, et contribuent à l'approvisionnement en besoins alimentaires des cultivateurs. En contrepartie il y a les risques sanitaires surtout à travers les oeufs d'helminthes. La situation actuelle nécessite des solutions immédiates. La difficulté d'une application immédiate des normes OMS et les implications politiques sont présentées. La possibilité de mieux gérer l'agriculture à l'eau usée pour améliorer les conditions sanitaires dans les villes est relevée.